Recovery of Aristotle
Encyclopedia
The "Recovery of Aristotle" (or Rediscovery) refers to the copying or re-translating of most (95%) of Aristotle
's other books (of ancient Greece), from Greek or Arabic text into Latin, during the Middle Ages
, of the Latin West. The Recovery of Aristotle spanned about 100 years, from the middle 12th century into the 13th century, and copied or translated over 42 books (see: Corpus Aristotelicum
), including Arabic texts from the Moors
, where the previous Latin versions had only 2 books in general circulation: Categories
and On Interpretation
(De Interpretatione).
The lack of Latin translations had been due to several factors, including limited techniques for copying books, lack of access to the Greek texts, and few people who could read ancient Greek
, while the Arabic versions were more accessible. The recovery of Aristotle's texts is considered a major period in mediaeval philosophy, leading to Aristotelianism
. Because some of Aristotle's newly-translated views discounted the notions of a personal God, immortal soul, or creation, various leaders of the Catholic Church were inclined to censor those views for decades, such as lists of forbidden books in the Condemnations of 1210–1277 at the University of Paris
. Meanwhile, Thomas Aquinas
(c.1225-1274), at the end of that time period, was able to reconcile the viewpoints of Aristotelianism and Christianity, primarily in his work, Summa Theologica
(written 1265–1274, in several volumes).
The rejection, by powerful religious leaders, to censor some recovered books of Aristotle, opened a new path to allow other ideas to be considered, or taught, regarding subjects in the banned books. Eventually, new ideas became more widespread, such as the heliocentric (sun-centered) sytem noted by Galileo Galilei
(1564-1642), which rejected Aristotle's Earth-centered system, even though Galileo's ideas were later censored by Church officials during his lifetime, as well.
, some Muslim
scholars had translated Aristotle's ancient-Greek writings into the Arabic language. They had also written commentaries about those writings. The preservation of ancient Greek ideas was a major contribution of Islamic civilization to the world's store of knowledge.
In the 4th century, the Roman grammarian Marius Victorinus had translated 2 of Aristotle's books, about logic, into Latin: the Categories
and On Interpretation
(De Interpretatione). A little over a century later, most of Aristotle's logical works, except perhaps for the Posterior Analytics
, had been translated by Boethius, c. 510–512 (see: Corpus Aristotelicum
). However, only Boethius's translations of the Categories and On Interpretation had entered into general circulation before the 12th century. The rest of Aristotle's books were eventually translated into Latin, but over 600 years later, from about the middle of the 12th century. First, the rest of the logical works were finished, by using the translations of Boethius as the basis. Then came the Physics
, followed by Avicenna
's Latin version of the Metaphysics
(12th century), Averroes
' Commentary on Aristotle's Metaphysics (13th century),
and the other books were copied. Essentially, all works had been translated by the mid-13th century.
Although the Greek philosopher Plato
had been Aristotle's teacher, most of the Greek writings of Plato were not translated into Latin until over 200 years after the Recovery of Aristotle. In the Middle Ages, the only book of Plato in general circulation was the first part of the dialogue Timaeus
(to 53c), as a translation, with commentary, by a certain Calcidius (or Chalcidius). The Timaeus describes Plato's cosmology
, as his account of the origin of the universe. Translations of the Meno
and the Phaedo
, had been written in the 12th century by Henry Aristippus
of Catania, but those books were in limited circulation. Some other translations of Plato's books disappeared during the Middle Ages. Finally, in the wider Renaissance
, Marsilio Ficino
(1433–99) translated and commented on the complete works of Plato, about 200 years after the rediscovery of Aristotle.
Compared to Aristotle, the views of Plato are generally considered to be based mainly on idealistic notions, whereas the views of Aristotle state some conclusions based on empirical evidence of actual objects or events in history. However, both of them held ideas which, in modern times, are considered to be incorrect. For example, Plato offered a view of the Earth as a motionless sphere
where the cosmos
revolved around it. The modern viewpoint is that the Earth is a ball-shaped oblate spheroid (not a perfect sphere), which rotates on a north-south axis, and this viewpoint combines some of the ideas of Plato and Aristotle.
Aristotle
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology...
's other books (of ancient Greece), from Greek or Arabic text into Latin, during the Middle Ages
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
, of the Latin West. The Recovery of Aristotle spanned about 100 years, from the middle 12th century into the 13th century, and copied or translated over 42 books (see: Corpus Aristotelicum
Corpus Aristotelicum
The Corpus Aristotelicum is the collection of Aristotle's works that have survived from antiquity through Medieval manuscript transmission. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school...
), including Arabic texts from the Moors
Moors
The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of the Maghreb region who are predominately of Berber and Arab descent. They came to conquer and rule the Iberian Peninsula for nearly 800 years. At that time they were Muslim, although earlier the people had followed...
, where the previous Latin versions had only 2 books in general circulation: Categories
Categories (Aristotle)
The Categories is a text from Aristotle's Organon that enumerates all the possible kinds of thing that can be the subject or the predicate of a proposition...
and On Interpretation
On Interpretation
Aristotle's De Interpretatione or On Interpretation is one of the earliest surviving philosophical works in the Western tradition to deal with the relationship between language and logic in a comprehensive, explicit, and formal way.The work begins by analyzing simple categoric...
(De Interpretatione).
The lack of Latin translations had been due to several factors, including limited techniques for copying books, lack of access to the Greek texts, and few people who could read ancient Greek
Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek is the stage of the Greek language in the periods spanning the times c. 9th–6th centuries BC, , c. 5th–4th centuries BC , and the c. 3rd century BC – 6th century AD of ancient Greece and the ancient world; being predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek...
, while the Arabic versions were more accessible. The recovery of Aristotle's texts is considered a major period in mediaeval philosophy, leading to Aristotelianism
Aristotelianism
Aristotelianism is a tradition of philosophy that takes its defining inspiration from the work of Aristotle. The works of Aristotle were initially defended by the members of the Peripatetic school, and, later on, by the Neoplatonists, who produced many commentaries on Aristotle's writings...
. Because some of Aristotle's newly-translated views discounted the notions of a personal God, immortal soul, or creation, various leaders of the Catholic Church were inclined to censor those views for decades, such as lists of forbidden books in the Condemnations of 1210–1277 at the University of Paris
University of Paris
The University of Paris was a university located in Paris, France and one of the earliest to be established in Europe. It was founded in the mid 12th century, and officially recognized as a university probably between 1160 and 1250...
. Meanwhile, Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas, O.P. , also Thomas of Aquin or Aquino, was an Italian Dominican priest of the Catholic Church, and an immensely influential philosopher and theologian in the tradition of scholasticism, known as Doctor Angelicus, Doctor Communis, or Doctor Universalis...
(c.1225-1274), at the end of that time period, was able to reconcile the viewpoints of Aristotelianism and Christianity, primarily in his work, Summa Theologica
Summa Theologica
The Summa Theologiæ is the best-known work of Thomas Aquinas , and although unfinished, "one of the classics of the history of philosophy and one of the most influential works of Western literature." It is intended as a manual for beginners in theology and a compendium of all of the main...
(written 1265–1274, in several volumes).
The rejection, by powerful religious leaders, to censor some recovered books of Aristotle, opened a new path to allow other ideas to be considered, or taught, regarding subjects in the banned books. Eventually, new ideas became more widespread, such as the heliocentric (sun-centered) sytem noted by Galileo Galilei
Galileo Galilei
Galileo Galilei , was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution. His achievements include improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations and support for Copernicanism...
(1564-1642), which rejected Aristotle's Earth-centered system, even though Galileo's ideas were later censored by Church officials during his lifetime, as well.
Background
In the Early Middle AgesEarly Middle Ages
The Early Middle Ages was the period of European history lasting from the 5th century to approximately 1000. The Early Middle Ages followed the decline of the Western Roman Empire and preceded the High Middle Ages...
, some Muslim
Muslim
A Muslim, also spelled Moslem, is an adherent of Islam, a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion based on the Quran, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God as revealed to prophet Muhammad. "Muslim" is the Arabic term for "submitter" .Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable...
scholars had translated Aristotle's ancient-Greek writings into the Arabic language. They had also written commentaries about those writings. The preservation of ancient Greek ideas was a major contribution of Islamic civilization to the world's store of knowledge.
In the 4th century, the Roman grammarian Marius Victorinus had translated 2 of Aristotle's books, about logic, into Latin: the Categories
Categories (Aristotle)
The Categories is a text from Aristotle's Organon that enumerates all the possible kinds of thing that can be the subject or the predicate of a proposition...
and On Interpretation
On Interpretation
Aristotle's De Interpretatione or On Interpretation is one of the earliest surviving philosophical works in the Western tradition to deal with the relationship between language and logic in a comprehensive, explicit, and formal way.The work begins by analyzing simple categoric...
(De Interpretatione). A little over a century later, most of Aristotle's logical works, except perhaps for the Posterior Analytics
Posterior Analytics
The Posterior Analytics is a text from Aristotle's Organon that deals with demonstration, definition, and scientific knowledge. The demonstration is distinguished as a syllogism productive of scientific knowledge, while the definition marked as the statement of a thing's nature, .....
, had been translated by Boethius, c. 510–512 (see: Corpus Aristotelicum
Corpus Aristotelicum
The Corpus Aristotelicum is the collection of Aristotle's works that have survived from antiquity through Medieval manuscript transmission. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school...
). However, only Boethius's translations of the Categories and On Interpretation had entered into general circulation before the 12th century. The rest of Aristotle's books were eventually translated into Latin, but over 600 years later, from about the middle of the 12th century. First, the rest of the logical works were finished, by using the translations of Boethius as the basis. Then came the Physics
Physics (Aristotle)
The Physics of Aristotle is one of the foundational books of Western science and philosophy...
, followed by Avicenna
Avicenna
Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Sīnā , commonly known as Ibn Sīnā or by his Latinized name Avicenna, was a Persian polymath, who wrote almost 450 treatises on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived...
's Latin version of the Metaphysics
Metaphysics (Aristotle)
Metaphysics is one of the principal works of Aristotle and the first major work of the branch of philosophy with the same name. The principal subject is "being qua being", or being understood as being. It examines what can be asserted about anything that exists just because of its existence and...
(12th century), Averroes
Averroes
' , better known just as Ibn Rushd , and in European literature as Averroes , was a Muslim polymath; a master of Aristotelian philosophy, Islamic philosophy, Islamic theology, Maliki law and jurisprudence, logic, psychology, politics, Arabic music theory, and the sciences of medicine, astronomy,...
' Commentary on Aristotle's Metaphysics (13th century),
and the other books were copied. Essentially, all works had been translated by the mid-13th century.
Although the Greek philosopher Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
had been Aristotle's teacher, most of the Greek writings of Plato were not translated into Latin until over 200 years after the Recovery of Aristotle. In the Middle Ages, the only book of Plato in general circulation was the first part of the dialogue Timaeus
Timaeus
Timaeus is a Greek name, meaning "Honour". It may refer to:*Timaeus , a Socratic dialogue by Plato*Timaeus of Locri, the 5th-century Pythagorean philosopher, appearing in Plato's dialogue...
(to 53c), as a translation, with commentary, by a certain Calcidius (or Chalcidius). The Timaeus describes Plato's cosmology
Cosmology
Cosmology is the discipline that deals with the nature of the Universe as a whole. Cosmologists seek to understand the origin, evolution, structure, and ultimate fate of the Universe at large, as well as the natural laws that keep it in order...
, as his account of the origin of the universe. Translations of the Meno
Meno
Meno is a Socratic dialogue written by Plato. It attempts to determine the definition of virtue, or arete, meaning virtue in general, rather than particular virtues, such as justice or temperance. The first part of the work is written in the Socratic dialectical style and Meno is reduced to...
and the Phaedo
Phaedo
Plato's Phaedo is one of the great dialogues of his middle period, along with the Republic and the Symposium. The Phaedo, which depicts the death of Socrates, is also Plato's seventh and last dialogue to detail the philosopher's final days .In the dialogue, Socrates...
, had been written in the 12th century by Henry Aristippus
Henry Aristippus
Henry Aristippus of Calabria, sometimes known as Enericus or Henricus Aristippus, was the archdeacon of Catania and later chief familiaris of the triumvirate of familiares who replaced the Emir Maio of Bari as chief functionaries of the kingdom of Sicily in 1161...
of Catania, but those books were in limited circulation. Some other translations of Plato's books disappeared during the Middle Ages. Finally, in the wider Renaissance
Renaissance
The Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historical era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not...
, Marsilio Ficino
Marsilio Ficino
Marsilio Ficino was one of the most influential humanist philosophers of the early Italian Renaissance, an astrologer, a reviver of Neoplatonism who was in touch with every major academic thinker and writer of his day, and the first translator of Plato's complete extant works into Latin...
(1433–99) translated and commented on the complete works of Plato, about 200 years after the rediscovery of Aristotle.
Compared to Aristotle, the views of Plato are generally considered to be based mainly on idealistic notions, whereas the views of Aristotle state some conclusions based on empirical evidence of actual objects or events in history. However, both of them held ideas which, in modern times, are considered to be incorrect. For example, Plato offered a view of the Earth as a motionless sphere
Sphere
A sphere is a perfectly round geometrical object in three-dimensional space, such as the shape of a round ball. Like a circle in two dimensions, a perfect sphere is completely symmetrical around its center, with all points on the surface lying the same distance r from the center point...
where the cosmos
Cosmos
In the general sense, a cosmos is an orderly or harmonious system. It originates from the Greek term κόσμος , meaning "order" or "ornament" and is antithetical to the concept of chaos. Today, the word is generally used as a synonym of the word Universe . The word cosmos originates from the same root...
revolved around it. The modern viewpoint is that the Earth is a ball-shaped oblate spheroid (not a perfect sphere), which rotates on a north-south axis, and this viewpoint combines some of the ideas of Plato and Aristotle.
See also
- Corpus AristotelicumCorpus AristotelicumThe Corpus Aristotelicum is the collection of Aristotle's works that have survived from antiquity through Medieval manuscript transmission. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school...
- a full list of Aristotle's known works. - ScholasticismScholasticismScholasticism is a method of critical thought which dominated teaching by the academics of medieval universities in Europe from about 1100–1500, and a program of employing that method in articulating and defending orthodoxy in an increasingly pluralistic context...
- ThomismThomismThomism is the philosophical school that arose as a legacy of the work and thought of St. Thomas Aquinas, philosopher, theologian, and Doctor of the Church. In philosophy, his commentaries on Aristotle are his most lasting contribution...