Referendary
Encyclopedia
Referendary is the English form or rendering of a number of administrative positions, of various rank, in chanceries and other official organisations.
refero, "I inform") existed at the Byzantine Court
. Such officials reported to the Emperor on the memorials of petitioners, and conveyed to the judges the Emperor's orders in connection with such memorials.
During the Frankish Empire
's Merovingian period, the official who would later be known as the Chancellor
(Latin
: cancellarius) was termed the Referendarius.
Other medieval kingdoms also had a referendary, e.g., Anianus, who in 506 CE compiled the Breviary of Alaric II
for that King of the Visigoths.
Later the office proliferated and thus became devalued, as reflected in compound titles differentiating some such offices, e.g., in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
. In later iteration
s of the Polish state, the title occurred again, e.g., as "referendary of state."
A referendary can also be an official (Grand Chancellor
) in an order of knighthood, e.g. the Order of Saint Lazarus
.
From these referendarii developed the court of the Signatura (Collegium referendariorum Signaturæ votantium), concerning which there are various papal constitutions. Pope Innocent VIII (1484–92) introduced a distinction between the referendarii on questions of favours and of justice, whence developed the "Signatura gratiæ" and the "Signatura justitiæ", each competent to give final decision within its sphere. Utriusque Signaturae Apostolicae Referendarius (attested for Joseph Simeon Assemani), or shorter referendarius utriusque signaturae (attested for Pietro Sforza Pallavicino
), 'Referendary of both signatures', was a specific title in the Roman Curia, apparently combining both competences.
In the court of the "Signatura justitiæ" developed a distinction between the prelates entitled to vote (prœlati votantes) and those whose duties were confined to reporting on individual cases (prœlati referendarii). The whole body gradually lost all practical importance, especially after the loss of the Papal States
, and was entirely abolished at the reorganization of the Curia by Pius X.
Law graduates are employed and paid by a court, where he or she works as a law clerk
. The training comprises several stages that give the referendar experience working under supervision in various fields of law. During the first two stages, the referendar works as a law clerk for a civil court judge and for the local office of the public prosecutor.
All law graduates must work as referendars for two years before they may receive admission to practice law. The referendarship is intended to provide practical knowledge that cannot be taught at university
.
For trainee teachers this period lasts between 18 and 24 months depending on the state
. During this time, referendare are employed by and paid for by the state as applicants to the Middle or Upper service as Beamte
, depending on which type of school they are training to teach at. The referendary consists of academic classes as well as teaching classes. At the end of the referendary, trainee teachers take their Second State Examination
to qualify for state employment as teachers.
See Referendar (German article).
Secular
The office of referendarius (plural: referendarii, from the LatinLatin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
refero, "I inform") existed at the Byzantine Court
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
. Such officials reported to the Emperor on the memorials of petitioners, and conveyed to the judges the Emperor's orders in connection with such memorials.
During the Frankish Empire
Frankish Empire
Francia or Frankia, later also called the Frankish Empire , Frankish Kingdom , Frankish Realm or occasionally Frankland, was the territory inhabited and ruled by the Franks from the 3rd to the 10th century...
's Merovingian period, the official who would later be known as the Chancellor
Chancellor
Chancellor is the title of various official positions in the governments of many nations. The original chancellors were the Cancellarii of Roman courts of justice—ushers who sat at the cancelli or lattice work screens of a basilica or law court, which separated the judge and counsel from the...
(Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
: cancellarius) was termed the Referendarius.
Other medieval kingdoms also had a referendary, e.g., Anianus, who in 506 CE compiled the Breviary of Alaric II
Breviary of Alaric
The Breviary of Alaric is a collection of Roman law, compiled by order of Alaric II, King of the Visigoths, with the advice of his bishops and nobles. It was promulgated on February 2, year 506, the twenty-second year of his reign...
for that King of the Visigoths.
Later the office proliferated and thus became devalued, as reflected in compound titles differentiating some such offices, e.g., in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
This article discusses the organizational and administrative structure of the Polish-Lithuanian CommonwealthThe Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth This article discusses the organizational and administrative structure of the Polish-Lithuanian CommonwealthThe Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth This article...
. In later iteration
Iteration
Iteration means the act of repeating a process usually with the aim of approaching a desired goal or target or result. Each repetition of the process is also called an "iteration," and the results of one iteration are used as the starting point for the next iteration.-Mathematics:Iteration in...
s of the Polish state, the title occurred again, e.g., as "referendary of state."
A referendary can also be an official (Grand Chancellor
Chancellor
Chancellor is the title of various official positions in the governments of many nations. The original chancellors were the Cancellarii of Roman courts of justice—ushers who sat at the cancelli or lattice work screens of a basilica or law court, which separated the judge and counsel from the...
) in an order of knighthood, e.g. the Order of Saint Lazarus
Order of Saint Lazarus
This article concerns the order of knighthood named after Saint Lazarus. For other uses of the name Lazarus, see Lazarus .The Military and Hospitaller Order of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem is an order of chivalry which originated in a leper hospital founded by the Knights Hospitaller in 1098 by the...
.
Ecclesiastic
In the Papal Curia Romana (court), the office of referendarii Apostolic' ('apostolic referendaries') originated in the Middle Ages; their duty was to receive all petitions directed to the Holy See, to report on them to the pope and to tender him advice. The treatment and decision varied according to the nature of the question: if a favour was concerned, it might be either granted or refused; if some dispute, the pope decided whether it should be referred to a judge. The referendarii were entrusted with all arrangements for these papal decisions, which they had to prepare for the pope's signature (signatura).From these referendarii developed the court of the Signatura (Collegium referendariorum Signaturæ votantium), concerning which there are various papal constitutions. Pope Innocent VIII (1484–92) introduced a distinction between the referendarii on questions of favours and of justice, whence developed the "Signatura gratiæ" and the "Signatura justitiæ", each competent to give final decision within its sphere. Utriusque Signaturae Apostolicae Referendarius (attested for Joseph Simeon Assemani), or shorter referendarius utriusque signaturae (attested for Pietro Sforza Pallavicino
Pietro Sforza Pallavicino
Pietro Sforza Pallavicino , Italian cardinal and historian, son of the Marquis Alessandro Pallavicino of Parma....
), 'Referendary of both signatures', was a specific title in the Roman Curia, apparently combining both competences.
In the court of the "Signatura justitiæ" developed a distinction between the prelates entitled to vote (prœlati votantes) and those whose duties were confined to reporting on individual cases (prœlati referendarii). The whole body gradually lost all practical importance, especially after the loss of the Papal States
Papal States
The Papal State, State of the Church, or Pontifical States were among the major historical states of Italy from roughly the 6th century until the Italian peninsula was unified in 1861 by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia .The Papal States comprised territories under...
, and was entirely abolished at the reorganization of the Curia by Pius X.
Germany
In Germany, a referendary is an individual undergoing a period of practical training in the legal profession or an aspiring teacher during the practical period of teacher training.Law graduates are employed and paid by a court, where he or she works as a law clerk
Law clerk
A law clerk or a judicial clerk is a person who provides assistance to a judge in researching issues before the court and in writing opinions. Law clerks are not court clerks or courtroom deputies, who are administrative staff for the court. Most law clerks are recent law school graduates who...
. The training comprises several stages that give the referendar experience working under supervision in various fields of law. During the first two stages, the referendar works as a law clerk for a civil court judge and for the local office of the public prosecutor.
All law graduates must work as referendars for two years before they may receive admission to practice law. The referendarship is intended to provide practical knowledge that cannot be taught at university
University
A university is an institution of higher education and research, which grants academic degrees in a variety of subjects. A university is an organisation that provides both undergraduate education and postgraduate education...
.
For trainee teachers this period lasts between 18 and 24 months depending on the state
States of Germany
Germany is made up of sixteen which are partly sovereign constituent states of the Federal Republic of Germany. Land literally translates as "country", and constitutionally speaking, they are constituent countries...
. During this time, referendare are employed by and paid for by the state as applicants to the Middle or Upper service as Beamte
Beamter
The German word Beamter means civil servant, and is pronounced , with a glottal stop between the 'e' and the 'a'...
, depending on which type of school they are training to teach at. The referendary consists of academic classes as well as teaching classes. At the end of the referendary, trainee teachers take their Second State Examination
Staatsexamen
The ' is a German government licensing examination that future doctors, teachers, pharmacists, food chemists and jurists have to pass to be allowed to work in their profession. The examination is generally organized by government examination agencies which are under the authority of the...
to qualify for state employment as teachers.
See Referendar (German article).