Reproductive justice
Encyclopedia
Reproductive justice is a concept linking reproductive health
with social justice
. The term emerged from the work of reproductive health organizations for women of color in the United States
in the 1990s.
, human rights violations, race, sexuality, and nationality. Proponents argue that women cannot have full control over their reproductive lives, unless issues such as socioeconomic disadvantage, racial discrimination, inequalities in wealth and power, and differential access to resources and services are addressed. The grassroots organization Asian Communities for Reproductive Justice defines reproductive justice as follows: "We believe reproductive justice is the complete physical, mental, spiritual, political, economic, and social well-being of women and girls, and will be achieved when women and girls have the economic, social and political power and resources to make healthy decisions about our bodies, sexuality and reproduction for ourselves, our families, and our communities in all areas of our lives."
According to SisterSong, reproductive justice has five primary characteristics:
Reproductive justice will be achieved when Indigenous women and women of color have the power to:
Reproductive justice has emerged as new critical reproductive theory linking it to critical race theory proponents that highlight intersectionality of race, gender, class, sexual orientation, disability, immigration status, and age as critical factors that must be incorporated to address the complex web of reproductive oppression faced by communities of color.
Advocates for reproductive justice have identified three main frameworks for advocating for women's sexual and reproductive needs: reproductive health, reproductive rights
, and reproductive justice. The reproductive health framework emphasizes access to health services, addressing inequalities in health by providing services to historically under-served communities The reproductive rights framework emphasizes the protection of an individual woman's legal right to reproductive health services, focusing on increasing access to contraception
and keeping abortion
legal. The reproductive justice framework utilizes an intersectional
analysis of women's experiences and focuses on changing the structural inequalities that affect women's reproductive health and their ability to control their reproductive lives.
For reproductive justice activists, the primary difference between the reproductive rights and health frameworks and the reproductive justice framework is that the rights and health frameworks focus on protecting individual rights and choices, while the reproductive justice framework focuses on broader socioeconomic conditions and bringing about structural change. The emphasis on individual choice in the health and rights frameworks is considered problematic because it obscures the social context in which reproductive choices are made, ignoring the fact that many women do not have access to services or resources, such as quality health care services or health insurance
. This lack of access limits the options available to these women. Therefore, advocates of reproductive justice argue that certain enabling conditions are necessary for women to make reproductive decisions free of constraint or coercion. These conditions include such factors as access to reliable transportation, health services, education, childcare, and access to positions of power; adequate housing and income; elimination of health hazardous environments; and freedom from violence and discrimination.
Reproductive justice activists have also criticized the choice paradigm because the focus on abortion rights in the pro-choice
movement does not take into account the experiences of many women of color in the US. The struggle for women of color has often been a fight for the right to have children, as many Native American, Black and Puerto Rican women have been targeted for forced sterilization
. Thus, reproductive justice activists believe that it is equally important to fight for the right to have a child, the right not to have a child, the right to parent the children that one already has, and the right to control one's birthing options.
criticized the term "choice" in the mainstream reproductive rights movement. The 1980s and 1990s saw the creation of many new reproductive health organizations for women of color, such as the National Black Women's Health Project. The term "reproductive justice" was coined in 1994 by the Black Women's Caucus at a national pro-choice conference sponsored by the Illinois Pro-Choice Alliance in Chicago. The conference took place two months after the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development
. The caucus was formed as an attempt to move away from the "choice" framework and adapt the Cairo Programme of Action in the context of the United States. Utilizing the human rights
framework of the Cairo Programme of Action, the caucus created the term "reproductive justice," which was originally defined as "reproductive health integrated into social justice."
In 1997, several members of the caucus became co-founders of the SisterSong Women of Color Reproductive Health Collective, which utilized a human rights framework as the basis for its organizing. After organizing a national conference in 2003 that explored the issue of reproductive justice, SisterSong adopted the reproductive justice framework as its principal framework. In 2004, SisterSong member group Asian and Pacific Islanders for Reproductive Health adopted reproductive justice as its central framework and renamed itself Asian Communities for Reproductive Justice, Several other reproductive rights and women's organizations, such as Planned Parenthood
and the National Organization for Women
, have since adopted usage of the term.
wrote in 1920 that “No woman can call herself free who does not own and control her body. No woman can call herself free until she can choose consciously whether she will or will not be a mother.” (Feminist theory p 139, 4). She later established the first birth control clinic in America, and was founder of the organization that became Planned Parenthood
. (feminist theory, 4). The movement for reproductive justice believes that women should have more access to and knowledge about birth control. Many health care plans do not offer coverage for contraception methods, especially the more expensive procedures and devices including the intrauterine device
(IUD), and the vaginal ring
. The IUD is more cost effective than most other methods of pregnancy prevention, since it is more effective than most methods and lasts for several years; however the initial cost is higher, making it less affordable initially. Contraceptive methods are often expensive, and so many women are not able to afford them without health insurance coverage. This brings into light the intersection between gender and class. Many lower income men and women cannot afford birth control.
Reproductive justice strives to make birth control more affordable for all women and petitions insurance companies to cover the costs of women’s reproductive health. N.O.W. (The National Organization for Women
, a feminist organization and advocate for reproductive justice) has recently petitioned congress to reinstate the low-cost contraception distribution by campus and community health centers. As a result, The Omnibus Appropriations Act was passed by Congress for fiscal year 2009, and provides for low-cost contraception to be distributed to these centers nationwide. These health centers that provide health services for women at a low-cost are an important part of the reproductive justice movement, and their goal to make reproductive health and contraception more readily available for all women.
Reproductive Justice advocates also desire increased awareness of methods of contraception including IUD’s, the vaginal ring
, the birth control pill, shots, condoms, and forms of emergency contraception
(like Plan B). By providing women with knowledge about and access to contraception, the reproductive justice movement hopes to lower unwanted pregnancies and help women take control over their bodies.
The Title X
Family Planning program, is a federally funded program, and was enacted in the 1970s to provide low income individuals with reproductive health services. Title X gives funding for clinics to provide health services such as breast and pelvic examinations, STD and cancer tests, HIV counseling, testing, and education, and other reproductive health services. These clinics are vital to low-income and uninsured individuals. Advocates for Reproductive justice also aim to increase funding for these programs and increase the number of services that are funded.
Furthermore, as a result of pro-life propaganda and backlash, almost no insurance plans provide coverage for abortions. It is estimated that almost 74% of women pay an average of $468 out of pocket for the procedure. (Hessini, Hays,Turner,& Packer,2009). In terms of Federal Hyde Amendment, the present version requires Medicaid coverage of abortion in the cases of rape, incest, and life endangerment. In addition, every court that has considered the Hyde Amendment's application to a state's Medicaid program since 1993 has held that states continuing to participate in the Medicaid program must cover abortions resulting from rape or incest in order to be compliant with the Hyde Amendment. However, because the Hyde Amendment affects only federal spending, states are free to use their own funds to cover additional abortion services. For example, Hawaii, New York, and Washington have enacted laws funding abortions for health reasons. Other states, such as Maryland, cover abortions for women whose pregnancies are affected by fetal abnormalities or present serious health risks. The most restrictive state Medicaid policy in the nation is that of South Dakota, where abortion is only covered by Medicaid in the case of life endangerment. It is the only state in the nation to fail to provide rape or incest coverage (National Abortion Federation website, accessed 2/1/11).
Advocates for reproductive justice believe that all women should be able to obtain safe and affordable abortions if they desire one. Having safe, local, and affordable access to abortion services is a crucial part of ensuring high quality healthcare for women. Access to abortion services without restrictive barriers is a vital part of women’s healthcare because “…induced abortion is among the most common medical procedures in the U.S…nearly half of American women will have one or more in their lifetimes”(Harper et al., 2005, p. 504). Furthermore, when access to abortion is prohibitive or difficult, abortions will inevitably be delayed, which therefore increases risks to women’s health and raises the cost of procedures (Crane and Smith, 2006) .
Increasing access to abortion in the U.S. will undoubtedly result in more women being able to obtain abortions in the first trimester of pregnancy. Procedures performed after 12 weeks of pregnancy may be costlier for women (and states) financially and medically, as waiting longer results in greater risks of medical complications and mortality than abortions performed earlier in pregnancy (Drey, Foster, Jackson, Lee, Cardenas, & Darney, 2006) . The American Medical Association echoes the importance of removing barriers to obtaining an early abortion, concluding that these barriers increase the gestational age at which the induced pregnancy termination occurs, thereby also increasing the risk associated with the procedure. Although a first or second trimester abortion is far safer than childbirth, the risk of complications significantly increases for each week that elapses after eight weeks (The American Medical Association, as cited by the Naral Pro-Choice America Foundation website, accessed 2/4/11) . Thus, being able to obtain an abortion early in one’s pregnancy (through the removal of state barriers) is crucial for ensuring the health of U.S. women.
Organizations like NOW and Planned Parenthood aim to provide increased access to safe abortions at a low-cost and without external stigma and pressure. Fighters for reproductive justice aim to increase insurance coverage for abortions, decrease the stigma/danger attached to receiving an abortion, eliminate parental notification for teens, train more physicians and clinics to provide safe abortions, and create awareness about abortion, while clearing up common misconceptions. (plannedparenthood.org) Many also work to fight the dichotomy of the pro-life/pro-choice debate, and work to expand the definitions of these debates.
Reproductive justice additionally addresses the disparity in how African Americans, Latinas, and other minority groups are affected by the under-availability of safe, affordable abortion services. Many more minority groups experience poverty and higher rates of pregnancy (due to the lack of available contraception). This makes obtaining an abortion difficult because they cannot afford these services. In addition, evidence shows that poor women are more likely to turn to unsafe providers, and as a result, be hospitalized for complications than higher-income women (Crane & Smith, 2006) Organizations like Sister Song work to fight issues that are at the root of the problem, related to social rights, economic rights, racial discrimination, etc. They fight these most basic forms of oppression in order to combat the interlocking systems of discrimination that affect whether a woman will seek out and afford an abortion as an alternative to an unwanted pregnancy.
, disability rights
, LGBTQ
rights, economic justice, and environmental justice
. Other causes include organizing for comprehensive sex education, safe and affordable contraceptives, repeal of the Hyde Amendment
, ending violence against women
, and ending human trafficking.
Reproductive health
Within the framework of the World Health Organization's definition of health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, reproductive health, or sexual health/hygiene, addresses the reproductive processes, functions and system...
with social justice
Social justice
Social justice generally refers to the idea of creating a society or institution that is based on the principles of equality and solidarity, that understands and values human rights, and that recognizes the dignity of every human being. The term and modern concept of "social justice" was coined by...
. The term emerged from the work of reproductive health organizations for women of color in the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
in the 1990s.
Overview
Proponents of the concept of reproductive justice aim to recognize that women's reproductive health is connected to and affected by conditions in their lives that are shaped by their socioeconomic statusSocioeconomic status
Socioeconomic status is an economic and sociological combined total measure of a person's work experience and of an individual's or family’s economic and social position in relation to others, based on income, education, and occupation...
, human rights violations, race, sexuality, and nationality. Proponents argue that women cannot have full control over their reproductive lives, unless issues such as socioeconomic disadvantage, racial discrimination, inequalities in wealth and power, and differential access to resources and services are addressed. The grassroots organization Asian Communities for Reproductive Justice defines reproductive justice as follows: "We believe reproductive justice is the complete physical, mental, spiritual, political, economic, and social well-being of women and girls, and will be achieved when women and girls have the economic, social and political power and resources to make healthy decisions about our bodies, sexuality and reproduction for ourselves, our families, and our communities in all areas of our lives."
According to SisterSong, reproductive justice has five primary characteristics:
- Defines the primary problem as Reproductive Oppression
- Uses an intersectional analysis
- Is based on worldview focused on human rights
- Links individuals to their communities
- Uses organizing and advocacy to work on institutional change
Reproductive justice will be achieved when Indigenous women and women of color have the power to:
- protect and advance our human rights;
- determine the number and spacing of our children;
- protect our bodily integrity;
- protect our right to parent our children;
- improve the quality of the environment in which we live,
- obtain the necessary social supports to live healthy lives in healthy families, and in safe and sustainable communities.
Reproductive justice has emerged as new critical reproductive theory linking it to critical race theory proponents that highlight intersectionality of race, gender, class, sexual orientation, disability, immigration status, and age as critical factors that must be incorporated to address the complex web of reproductive oppression faced by communities of color.
Advocates for reproductive justice have identified three main frameworks for advocating for women's sexual and reproductive needs: reproductive health, reproductive rights
Reproductive rights
Reproductive rights are legal rights and freedoms relating to reproduction and reproductive health. The World Health Organization defines reproductive rights as follows:...
, and reproductive justice. The reproductive health framework emphasizes access to health services, addressing inequalities in health by providing services to historically under-served communities The reproductive rights framework emphasizes the protection of an individual woman's legal right to reproductive health services, focusing on increasing access to contraception
Contraception
Contraception is the prevention of the fusion of gametes during or after sexual activity. The term contraception is a contraction of contra, which means against, and the word conception, meaning fertilization...
and keeping abortion
Abortion
Abortion is defined as the termination of pregnancy by the removal or expulsion from the uterus of a fetus or embryo prior to viability. An abortion can occur spontaneously, in which case it is usually called a miscarriage, or it can be purposely induced...
legal. The reproductive justice framework utilizes an intersectional
Intersectionality
Intersectionality is a feminist sociological theory first highlighted by Kimberlé Crenshaw . Intersectionality is a methodology of studying "the relationships among multiple dimensions and modalities of social relationships and subject formations"...
analysis of women's experiences and focuses on changing the structural inequalities that affect women's reproductive health and their ability to control their reproductive lives.
For reproductive justice activists, the primary difference between the reproductive rights and health frameworks and the reproductive justice framework is that the rights and health frameworks focus on protecting individual rights and choices, while the reproductive justice framework focuses on broader socioeconomic conditions and bringing about structural change. The emphasis on individual choice in the health and rights frameworks is considered problematic because it obscures the social context in which reproductive choices are made, ignoring the fact that many women do not have access to services or resources, such as quality health care services or health insurance
Health insurance
Health insurance is insurance against the risk of incurring medical expenses among individuals. By estimating the overall risk of health care expenses among a targeted group, an insurer can develop a routine finance structure, such as a monthly premium or payroll tax, to ensure that money is...
. This lack of access limits the options available to these women. Therefore, advocates of reproductive justice argue that certain enabling conditions are necessary for women to make reproductive decisions free of constraint or coercion. These conditions include such factors as access to reliable transportation, health services, education, childcare, and access to positions of power; adequate housing and income; elimination of health hazardous environments; and freedom from violence and discrimination.
Reproductive justice activists have also criticized the choice paradigm because the focus on abortion rights in the pro-choice
Pro-choice
Support for the legalization of abortion is centered around the pro-choice movement, a sociopolitical movement supporting the ethical view that a woman should have the legal right to elective abortion, meaning the right to terminate her pregnancy....
movement does not take into account the experiences of many women of color in the US. The struggle for women of color has often been a fight for the right to have children, as many Native American, Black and Puerto Rican women have been targeted for forced sterilization
Compulsory sterilization
Compulsory sterilization also known as forced sterilization programs are government policies which attempt to force people to undergo surgical sterilization...
. Thus, reproductive justice activists believe that it is equally important to fight for the right to have a child, the right not to have a child, the right to parent the children that one already has, and the right to control one's birthing options.
Origin and history
Roots of the reproductive justice framework can be traced to the 1970s, when women of color organizations such as the National Council of Negro WomenNational Council of Negro Women
The National Council of Negro Women is a non-profit organization with the mission to advance the opportunities and the quality of life for African American women, their families and communities. NCNW fulfills this mission through research, advocacy, national and community based services and...
criticized the term "choice" in the mainstream reproductive rights movement. The 1980s and 1990s saw the creation of many new reproductive health organizations for women of color, such as the National Black Women's Health Project. The term "reproductive justice" was coined in 1994 by the Black Women's Caucus at a national pro-choice conference sponsored by the Illinois Pro-Choice Alliance in Chicago. The conference took place two months after the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development
International Conference on Population and Development
The United Nations coordinated an International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo, Egypt from 5–13 September 1994. Its resulting Program of Action is the steering document for the United Nations Population Fund ....
. The caucus was formed as an attempt to move away from the "choice" framework and adapt the Cairo Programme of Action in the context of the United States. Utilizing the human rights
Human rights
Human rights are "commonly understood as inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being." Human rights are thus conceived as universal and egalitarian . These rights may exist as natural rights or as legal rights, in both national...
framework of the Cairo Programme of Action, the caucus created the term "reproductive justice," which was originally defined as "reproductive health integrated into social justice."
In 1997, several members of the caucus became co-founders of the SisterSong Women of Color Reproductive Health Collective, which utilized a human rights framework as the basis for its organizing. After organizing a national conference in 2003 that explored the issue of reproductive justice, SisterSong adopted the reproductive justice framework as its principal framework. In 2004, SisterSong member group Asian and Pacific Islanders for Reproductive Health adopted reproductive justice as its central framework and renamed itself Asian Communities for Reproductive Justice, Several other reproductive rights and women's organizations, such as Planned Parenthood
Planned Parenthood
Planned Parenthood Federation of America , commonly shortened to Planned Parenthood, is the U.S. affiliate of the International Planned Parenthood Federation and one of its larger members. PPFA is a non-profit organization providing reproductive health and maternal and child health services. The...
and the National Organization for Women
National Organization for Women
The National Organization for Women is the largest feminist organization in the United States. It was founded in 1966 and has a membership of 500,000 contributing members. The organization consists of 550 chapters in all 50 U.S...
, have since adopted usage of the term.
Sexuality education
The curricula for sexual education varies greatly by school and region. There are many different types of sexual education programs, but the most common grouping of such programs is the comprehensive approach and the abstinence only approach (until marriage). The abstinence only approach emphasizes abstaining from all sexual activity until marriage. This program provides a minimal amount of information concerning contraception methods, but does provide information on STD’s/STI’s and HIV/AIDS. Advocates for reproductive justice believe in providing a comprehensive sexual education in schools. This curriculum includes teaching adolescents about contraception, STD and HIV prevention, discussions about abortion, and acknowledgement that many teens will become sexually active. However, the proposed policy also encourages teens to abstain from sex and aims to further compliments the cultural and familial values of the community. Although both policies aims are the same: preventing pregnancy and reducing STD’s/STI’s and HIV/AIDs, the methods and subject matter for reaching this end are still a hot topic of contention in schools.Birth control and emergency contraception
Controversies relating to birth control have been around as early as the 1900s. Margaret SangerMargaret Sanger
Margaret Higgins Sanger was an American sex educator, nurse, and birth control activist. Sanger coined the term birth control, opened the first birth control clinic in the United States, and established Planned Parenthood...
wrote in 1920 that “No woman can call herself free who does not own and control her body. No woman can call herself free until she can choose consciously whether she will or will not be a mother.” (Feminist theory p 139, 4). She later established the first birth control clinic in America, and was founder of the organization that became Planned Parenthood
Planned Parenthood
Planned Parenthood Federation of America , commonly shortened to Planned Parenthood, is the U.S. affiliate of the International Planned Parenthood Federation and one of its larger members. PPFA is a non-profit organization providing reproductive health and maternal and child health services. The...
. (feminist theory, 4). The movement for reproductive justice believes that women should have more access to and knowledge about birth control. Many health care plans do not offer coverage for contraception methods, especially the more expensive procedures and devices including the intrauterine device
Intrauterine device
A copper IUD is a type of intrauterine device. Most IUDs have a plastic T- or U-shaped frame which is wrapped in copper wire, with the exception of Gynefix, which is a plastic string with several copper beads, affixed to the fundus of the uterus...
(IUD), and the vaginal ring
Vaginal ring
Vaginal rings are polymeric drug delivery devices designed to provide controlled release of drugs for intravaginal administration over extended periods of time. The ring is inserted into the vagina and provides contraception protection...
. The IUD is more cost effective than most other methods of pregnancy prevention, since it is more effective than most methods and lasts for several years; however the initial cost is higher, making it less affordable initially. Contraceptive methods are often expensive, and so many women are not able to afford them without health insurance coverage. This brings into light the intersection between gender and class. Many lower income men and women cannot afford birth control.
Reproductive justice strives to make birth control more affordable for all women and petitions insurance companies to cover the costs of women’s reproductive health. N.O.W. (The National Organization for Women
National Organization for Women
The National Organization for Women is the largest feminist organization in the United States. It was founded in 1966 and has a membership of 500,000 contributing members. The organization consists of 550 chapters in all 50 U.S...
, a feminist organization and advocate for reproductive justice) has recently petitioned congress to reinstate the low-cost contraception distribution by campus and community health centers. As a result, The Omnibus Appropriations Act was passed by Congress for fiscal year 2009, and provides for low-cost contraception to be distributed to these centers nationwide. These health centers that provide health services for women at a low-cost are an important part of the reproductive justice movement, and their goal to make reproductive health and contraception more readily available for all women.
Reproductive Justice advocates also desire increased awareness of methods of contraception including IUD’s, the vaginal ring
Vaginal ring
Vaginal rings are polymeric drug delivery devices designed to provide controlled release of drugs for intravaginal administration over extended periods of time. The ring is inserted into the vagina and provides contraception protection...
, the birth control pill, shots, condoms, and forms of emergency contraception
Emergency contraception
Emergency contraception , or emergency postcoital contraception, refers to birth control measures that, if taken after sexual intercourse, may prevent pregnancy.Forms of EC include:...
(like Plan B). By providing women with knowledge about and access to contraception, the reproductive justice movement hopes to lower unwanted pregnancies and help women take control over their bodies.
The Title X
Title X
The Title X Family Planning Program, officially known as Public Law 91-572 or “Population Research and Voluntary Family Planning Programs” was enacted under President Richard Nixon in 1970 as part of the Public Health Service Act...
Family Planning program, is a federally funded program, and was enacted in the 1970s to provide low income individuals with reproductive health services. Title X gives funding for clinics to provide health services such as breast and pelvic examinations, STD and cancer tests, HIV counseling, testing, and education, and other reproductive health services. These clinics are vital to low-income and uninsured individuals. Advocates for Reproductive justice also aim to increase funding for these programs and increase the number of services that are funded.
Abortion
Although abortions were made legal in the Roe v.s. Wade Supreme Court decision of 1973, many obstacles to women's access remain. Young, low-income, and non-white women experience the greatest hurdles in their efforts to obtain an abortion in many parts of the U.S. (Fried, 2000) . Obstacles to obtaining an abortion in the U.S. include a lack of Medicaid coverage for abortions (except in the case of certain circumstances, such as life endangerment), restrictive state laws (such as those requiring parental consent for a minor seeking an abortion), and conscience clauses allowing medical professionals to refuse to provide women with abortions, related-information, or proper referrals (Fried, 2000). Additional obstacles to access include a lack of safety for providers and patients at abortion facilities, the conservative, anti-choice political legislators and the citizens that support them, and a lack of qualified abortion providers, especially in rural states (Harper, Henderson, & Darney, 2005) .Furthermore, as a result of pro-life propaganda and backlash, almost no insurance plans provide coverage for abortions. It is estimated that almost 74% of women pay an average of $468 out of pocket for the procedure. (Hessini, Hays,Turner,& Packer,2009). In terms of Federal Hyde Amendment, the present version requires Medicaid coverage of abortion in the cases of rape, incest, and life endangerment. In addition, every court that has considered the Hyde Amendment's application to a state's Medicaid program since 1993 has held that states continuing to participate in the Medicaid program must cover abortions resulting from rape or incest in order to be compliant with the Hyde Amendment. However, because the Hyde Amendment affects only federal spending, states are free to use their own funds to cover additional abortion services. For example, Hawaii, New York, and Washington have enacted laws funding abortions for health reasons. Other states, such as Maryland, cover abortions for women whose pregnancies are affected by fetal abnormalities or present serious health risks. The most restrictive state Medicaid policy in the nation is that of South Dakota, where abortion is only covered by Medicaid in the case of life endangerment. It is the only state in the nation to fail to provide rape or incest coverage (National Abortion Federation website, accessed 2/1/11).
Advocates for reproductive justice believe that all women should be able to obtain safe and affordable abortions if they desire one. Having safe, local, and affordable access to abortion services is a crucial part of ensuring high quality healthcare for women. Access to abortion services without restrictive barriers is a vital part of women’s healthcare because “…induced abortion is among the most common medical procedures in the U.S…nearly half of American women will have one or more in their lifetimes”(Harper et al., 2005, p. 504). Furthermore, when access to abortion is prohibitive or difficult, abortions will inevitably be delayed, which therefore increases risks to women’s health and raises the cost of procedures (Crane and Smith, 2006) .
Increasing access to abortion in the U.S. will undoubtedly result in more women being able to obtain abortions in the first trimester of pregnancy. Procedures performed after 12 weeks of pregnancy may be costlier for women (and states) financially and medically, as waiting longer results in greater risks of medical complications and mortality than abortions performed earlier in pregnancy (Drey, Foster, Jackson, Lee, Cardenas, & Darney, 2006) . The American Medical Association echoes the importance of removing barriers to obtaining an early abortion, concluding that these barriers increase the gestational age at which the induced pregnancy termination occurs, thereby also increasing the risk associated with the procedure. Although a first or second trimester abortion is far safer than childbirth, the risk of complications significantly increases for each week that elapses after eight weeks (The American Medical Association, as cited by the Naral Pro-Choice America Foundation website, accessed 2/4/11) . Thus, being able to obtain an abortion early in one’s pregnancy (through the removal of state barriers) is crucial for ensuring the health of U.S. women.
Organizations like NOW and Planned Parenthood aim to provide increased access to safe abortions at a low-cost and without external stigma and pressure. Fighters for reproductive justice aim to increase insurance coverage for abortions, decrease the stigma/danger attached to receiving an abortion, eliminate parental notification for teens, train more physicians and clinics to provide safe abortions, and create awareness about abortion, while clearing up common misconceptions. (plannedparenthood.org) Many also work to fight the dichotomy of the pro-life/pro-choice debate, and work to expand the definitions of these debates.
Reproductive justice additionally addresses the disparity in how African Americans, Latinas, and other minority groups are affected by the under-availability of safe, affordable abortion services. Many more minority groups experience poverty and higher rates of pregnancy (due to the lack of available contraception). This makes obtaining an abortion difficult because they cannot afford these services. In addition, evidence shows that poor women are more likely to turn to unsafe providers, and as a result, be hospitalized for complications than higher-income women (Crane & Smith, 2006) Organizations like Sister Song work to fight issues that are at the root of the problem, related to social rights, economic rights, racial discrimination, etc. They fight these most basic forms of oppression in order to combat the interlocking systems of discrimination that affect whether a woman will seek out and afford an abortion as an alternative to an unwanted pregnancy.
Causes
Because of the broad scope of the reproductive justice framework, reproductive justice activists are involved in organizing for a wide array of causes. These causes include movements for immigrant rights, labor rightsLabor rights
Labor rights or workers' rights are a group of legal rights and claimed human rights having to do with labor relations between workers and their employers, usually obtained under labor and employment law. In general, these rights' debates have to do with negotiating workers' pay, benefits, and safe...
, disability rights
Disability rights movement
The disability rights movement is the movement to secure equal opportunities and equal rights for people with disabilities. The specific goals and demands of the movement are: accessibility and safety in transportation, architecture, and the physical environment, equal opportunities in independent...
, LGBTQ
LGBT
LGBT is an initialism that collectively refers to "lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender" people. In use since the 1990s, the term "LGBT" is an adaptation of the initialism "LGB", which itself started replacing the phrase "gay community" beginning in the mid-to-late 1980s, which many within the...
rights, economic justice, and environmental justice
Environmental justice
Environmental justice is "the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, sex, national origin, or income with respect to the development, implementation and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies." In the words of Bunyan Bryant,...
. Other causes include organizing for comprehensive sex education, safe and affordable contraceptives, repeal of the Hyde Amendment
Hyde Amendment
In U.S. politics, the Hyde Amendment is a legislative provision barring the use of certain federal funds to pay for abortions. It is not a permanent law, rather it is a "rider" that, in various forms, has been routinely attached to annual appropriations bills since 1976...
, ending violence against women
Violence against women
Violence against women is a technical term used to collectively refer to violent acts that are primarily or exclusively committed against women...
, and ending human trafficking.
See also
- Black feminismBlack feminismBlack feminism argues that sexism, class oppression, and racism are inextricably bound together. Forms of feminism that strive to overcome sexism and class oppression. The Combahee River Collective argued in 1974 that the liberation of black women entails freedom for all people, since it would...
- Choice USAChoice USAChoice USA is a reproductive rights non-profit organization in the United States based in Washington, D.C. and Oakland, California. It is youth-led, with a focus on pro-choice movements....
- Health disparitiesHealth disparitiesHealth equity refers to the study of differences in the quality of health and health care across different populations....
- INCITE! Women of Color Against ViolenceINCITE! Women of Color Against ViolenceINCITE! Women of Color Against Violence is a United States-based national activist organization of radical feminists of color advancing a movement to end violence against women of color and their communities...
- Intersectionality theory
- National Black Women's Health ProjectNational Black Women's Health ProjectNational Black Women’s Health Project was legally formed in 1984 in Atlanta, Georgia out of an expressed need to address the health and reproductive rights of African American Women. NBWHP was principally founded by Byllye Avery...
- National Women's Health NetworkNational Women's Health NetworkThe National Women's Health Network is a non-profit women's health advocacy organization located in Washington, D.C.. It was founded in 1975 by Barbara Seaman, Alice Wolfson, Belita Cowan, Mary Howell, M.D., and Phyllis Chesler, Ph.D. The stated mission of the organization is to give women a...
- Reproductive healthReproductive healthWithin the framework of the World Health Organization's definition of health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, reproductive health, or sexual health/hygiene, addresses the reproductive processes, functions and system...
- Third-wave feminismThird-wave feminismThird-wave feminism is a term identified with several diverse strains of feminist activity and study whose exact boundaries in the historiography of feminism are a subject of debate, but often marked as beginning in the 1980s and continuing to the present...
External links
- Asian Communities for Reproductive Justice
- California Latinas for Reproductive Justice
- SPARK! Reproductive Justice NOW
- Black Women for Reproductive Justice
- Colorado Organization for Latina Opportunity and Reproductive Rights
- National Asian Women's Health Organization
- National Latina Institute for Reproductive Health