Reserve head
Encyclopedia
Bust (sculpture)
A bust is a sculpted or cast representation of the upper part of the human figure, depicting a person's head and neck, as well as a variable portion of the chest and shoulders. The piece is normally supported by a plinth. These forms recreate the likeness of an individual...
made primarily of fine limestone
Limestone
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate . Many limestones are composed from skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera....
that have been found in a number of non-royal tombs of the Fourth dynasty of Egypt
Fourth dynasty of Egypt
The fourth dynasty of ancient Egypt is characterized as a "golden age" of the Old Kingdom. Dynasty IV lasted from ca. 2613 to 2494 BC...
; primarily from the reigns of pyramid
Egyptian pyramids
The Egyptian pyramids are ancient pyramid-shaped masonry structures located in Egypt.There are 138 pyramids discovered in Egypt as of 2008. Most were built as tombs for the country's Pharaohs and their consorts during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods.The earliest known Egyptian pyramids are found...
-building pharaohs Khufu
Khufu
Khufu , also known as Cheops or, in Manetho, Suphis , was a Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt's Old Kingdom. He reigned from around 2589 to 2566 BC. Khufu was the second pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty. He is generally accepted as being the builder of the Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of...
to Khafre, circa 2551-2496 B.C. While each of the heads share characteristics in common with each other (and some examples may be more caricature than reflecting a true-life appearance), the striking individuality of the pieces makes them some of the earliest examples of portrait sculpture in existence. Their purpose is not entirely clear; the name comes from the prevalent theory first put forward, in 1903, by the German Egyptologist
Egyptology
Egyptology is the study of ancient Egyptian history, language, literature, religion, and art from the 5th millennium BC until the end of its native religious practices in the AD 4th century. A practitioner of the discipline is an “Egyptologist”...
Ludwig Borchardt
Ludwig Borchardt
Ludwig Borchardt was a German Egyptologist who was born in Berlin.-Life:Borchardt initially studied Architecture and later Egyptology under Adolf Erman. In 1895 he journeyed to Cairo and produced, with Gaston Maspero, the Catalogue of the Egyptian Museum...
that the head was to serve as an alternate home for the spirit of the dead owner should anything happen to its body.
Description
What surprised the archeologists was the highly individual nature of these life-sized depictions, whose individual character has been compared to portrait heads of classic and modern times. For private works, Ancient Egyptian sculptors tended to capture an idealized version of a face, often eliminating individual traits in a way that, as one writer put it: "approached architectural impersonality". In contrast the reserve heads seem to depict unique individuals, with one early researcher ascribing family relationships between the reserve heads he found. With few exceptions they are of high artistic quality, and were very probably the product of the royal workshops.The majority of the heads were made of a fine, white limestone, while a couple of examples have been found that were made of ground mud from the banks of the Nile
Nile
The Nile is a major north-flowing river in North Africa, generally regarded as the longest river in the world. It is long. It runs through the ten countries of Sudan, South Sudan, Burundi, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda and Egypt.The Nile has two major...
. Although there are a few exceptions that are more crudely carved and heavily plastered, most are intricately carved and have been carefully smoothed. The smooth ones have not, however, been polished. They all depict people with shaved heads or close-cropped hair, and the largest examples are just over 30 cm (11.8 in) in height.
Multilation of the reserve heads
Almost all of the heads show some form of damage or mutilation that may or may not have been deliberately inflicted upon them before they were placed in the tomb. One of the most common features is for their ears to be broken off or seemingly chiseled away At least one scholar disputes that the damage to the ears was deliberate, pointing out cases where detached ears have been found in perfect condition, and that the damage may be due more to rough handling by tomb robbers. Of the many reserve heads only one has wholly intact ears; in others they have been scraped off close to the surface, whereas other or more crudely hacked or broken away. One example contained dowel holes for the attachment of external ears which were not found with the head, and another, smaller group of reserve heads were not made with any ears at all.Another common feature has been called the "cranial groove", a careful and deliberate cut that typically starts from the top of the cranium and extends to the back of the neck.
History
The first reserve head was discovered in 1894, in Dashur, by the Director General of the French Service of Antiquities in Egypt, Jacques de MorganJacques de Morgan
Jean-Jacques de Morgan was a French mining engineer , geologist, and archaeologist. He was the director of Antiquities in Egypt during the 19th century , and excavated in Memphis and Dashur, providing many drawings of many Egyptian pyramids...
. The majority of the heads were discovered by the American Egyptologist George Andrew Reisner, who excavated a number of mastaba
Mastaba
A mastaba, or "pr-djt" , is a type of ancient Egyptian tomb in the form of a flat-roofed, rectangular structure with outward sloping sides that marked the burial site of many eminent Egyptians of Egypt's ancient period...
tombs to the west of the Great Pyramid of Giza
Great Pyramid of Giza
The Great Pyramid of Giza is the oldest and largest of the three pyramids in the Giza Necropolis bordering what is now El Giza, Egypt. It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one to remain largely intact...
. He identified these mastabas as belonging to royal family members of the pharaoh Khafra
Khafra
Khafra — also Khafre — was an Egyptian pharaoh of the Fourth dynasty, who had his capital at Memphis. According to some authors he was the son and successor of Khufu, but it is more commonly accepted that Djedefre was Khufu's successor and Khafra was Djedefre's...
, one of which (No. 4140) was identified as that of a princess based on a stela inscription that was found. Two additional examples were discovered by the Austrian Egyptologist Hermann Junker
Hermann Junker
Hermann Junker was a German archaeologist best known for his discovery of the Merimde site in the West Delta in Lower Egypt in 1928.-Selected Publications:* Die Grabung auf dem Mastabafeld von Gizeh. Vienna: Akademie der Wissenschaft, 1912....
at Giza during 1914. The vast majority of the reserve heads discovered came from the cemeteries at Giza, though three examples have been recovered from Abusir
Abusir
Abusir is the name given to an Egyptian archaeological locality – specifically, an extensive necropolis of the Old Kingdom period, together with later additions – in the vicinity of the modern capital Cairo...
, Saqqara
Saqqara
Saqqara is a vast, ancient burial ground in Egypt, serving as the necropolis for the Ancient Egyptian capital, Memphis. Saqqara features numerous pyramids, including the world famous Step pyramid of Djoser, sometimes referred to as the Step Tomb due to its rectangular base, as well as a number of...
and Dahshur
Dahshur
Dahshur , is a royal necropolis located in the desert on the west bank of the Nile approximately 40 kilometres south of Cairo...
.
Modern forgeries of reserve heads are known to exist. An example at the Oriental Institute in Chicago was bought from a Cairo art dealer in 1929, and is now thought to be a fake, based in part on the fact that it is made of brown quartzite
Quartzite
Quartzite is a hard metamorphic rock which was originally sandstone. Sandstone is converted into quartzite through heating and pressure usually related to tectonic compression within orogenic belts. Pure quartzite is usually white to gray, though quartzites often occur in various shades of pink...
, a material common to none of the other reserve heads found in situ.
Possible functions
The explanation originally put forward by Ludwig Borchardt, and later expanded upon by other early 20th century Egyptologists including Junker and Reisner, was that the reserve head served as a ritualistic substitute for the real head of the deceased, in case it was damaged. Another suggestion put forward by Egyptologist Nicholas MilletNicholas Millet
Dr. Nicholas Byram Millet was an Egyptologist affiliated with the Royal Ontario Museum and the University of Toronto. An archaeologist, art historian, linguist, museum curator, administrator, and celebrated teacher, Millet was able to make great strides in the daunting task of translating the lost...
that they served as sculptor's prototypes for making further statues and reliefs of the deceased. Moulds were then taken from the reserve heads in plaster, and the gouges that appear on many of the heads, the seeming mutilation to the ears and the excess plaster that appears on at least one of the heads can be explained as the type of damage that would be expected by trying to remove tight-fitting plaster casts from a reserve head.
Egyptologist Roland Tefnin suggested that the heads were ritually mutilated to prevent them from harming the living. Tefnin proposed that the reserved heads were created by a master sculptor, and upon the subject's death the reserve head received a ritualized mutilation to ensure that it could not harm the deceased in the afterlife. He lists the damage at the back of the head, the removal of the ears, the depiction of the deceased with no hair or very short cropped hair and in some cases the carving of a line in the neck representing ritual decapitation as examples. There are problems with this theory however, in that while there was a well-known practice of cutting certain hieroglyphic figures (such as those representing various animals) in tombs to render them harmess to the deceased, this practice never extended to images of the tomb owner. The function of images of the deceased throughout the history of funerary arts in Ancient Egypt was to act as an alternate receptacles for their soul, and "killing" them would be contrary to this purpose. This type of multilation is not seen in statues placed in later tombs.
The most recent theory proposed by Peter Lacovara as to the purpose of the "mutilations" is that they are guidelines used by the sculptor in the creation of the reserve head. He proposes that a closer examination of the evidence points to all of the lines being carved onto the reserve heads as being done prior to their completion rather than afterwards. As proof he points out that in the most complete examples, the mutilations are minor or absent, and on others it is clear that what grooves were made were subsequently smoothed down, rather than being the fresh cut that would be expected if they were inflicted after their creation. There are other Ancient Egyptian unfinished sculptures where guidelines for the sculptor can be seen, usually painted onto the hard stone. Lacovara believes that paint would have easily rubbed off of the relatively soft limestone that was used, and so the sculptors carved the guidelines instead. These guidelines were then polished away, and in the cases where they were not removed compelted were covered by plaster which has since fallen away. Plaster would also have been used to cover up any mistakes that the sculptor had made, such as with the example of heavy plaster seen on one of the reserve herads in Cairo (60003) where the eye has been recarved. The damage seen to the ears of many of the reserve heads is thought to be due mainly to rough handling by tomb robbers. All of this would support the original theory that the reserve heads were designed as alternate places for the soul of the deceased to inhabit.
Place within Ancient Egyptian art
While reserve heads were only made for a relative short amount of time, they made an impression on later sculpture of the Old Kingdom.Unlike other sculptures from Ancient Egypt, these heads were never intended as part of a larger, composite sculpture; they were stand-alone pieces of just the head done in the round, with a flat surface at the base of the neck suggesting that they were intended to stand upright. Most were found in the burial pits outside of the burial chamber of the tomb, but in those cases it is considered likely that they were simply dumped in these places by tomb robbers. Both examples discovered by Hermann Junker in 1914 were found within the tomb chamber, and are thought to have belonged to the owner of the tomb. No evidence of these sculptures have come from the above-ground offering temples, separating them from other Old Kingdom statues directly associated with the funerary cult of the deceased.
The single instance of a reserve head found in an undisturbed tomb was located beside the sarcophagus of the tomb's occupant. It is generally assumed that all reserve heads were originally in similar positions in their respective tombs, though the large number of heads found in burial pits has led to the suggestion that they were instead originally displayed by the entrance of the tomb chamber rather than within the tomb.
The timespan in which reserve heads were created was short; they were likely created by only a couple of generations of sculptors during the reigns of the pharaohs Khufu
Khufu
Khufu , also known as Cheops or, in Manetho, Suphis , was a Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt's Old Kingdom. He reigned from around 2589 to 2566 BC. Khufu was the second pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty. He is generally accepted as being the builder of the Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of...
, Djedefre and Khafre.
The practice of using reserve heads appears to have ended sometime during the Sixth dynasty
Sixth dynasty of Egypt
The sixth dynasty of ancient Egypt is often combined with Dynasties III, IV and V under the group title the Old Kingdom.-Pharaohs:...
, replaced by the practice of covering the head or the entire body of the deceased in plaster. These face and body coverings that were created may have the same purpose as the reserve head, working as a substitute location for the spirit if the original head decayed or was otherwise destroyed. It seems likely that both the practice of crafting reserve heads and that of covering the body or face of an individual with plaster overlapped considerably, with an early example of the latter dated to the end of the Fourth dynasty based on the pottery that was found with it. The practice of covering the body or face with plaster was also short-lived, as improved mummification techniques offered a better chance of preserving the body than covering it with plaster. Plaster masks that were formed directly around the head of the deceased are now thought to represent an early stage in a process that would lead to the full mummification of non-royal bodies. eventually evolving into the practice of creating masks made of cartonnage
Cartonnage
Cartonnage is a type of material composing Egyptian funerary masks from the First Intermediate Period onward. It was made of layers of linen or papyrus covered with plaster. Some of the Fayum mummy portraits are also painted on panels made of cartonnage....
, consisting of linen layers mixed with gesso
Gesso
Gesso is a white paint mixture consisting of a binder mixed with chalk, gypsum, pigment, or any combination of these...
.
Location
37 reserve heads are known, which includes five in private collections. In AbusirAbusir
Abusir is the name given to an Egyptian archaeological locality – specifically, an extensive necropolis of the Old Kingdom period, together with later additions – in the vicinity of the modern capital Cairo...
, a reserve head for a princess was found by Borchardt, and an ear possibly belonging to Kaaper was found in his tomb.
Most of the reserve heads come from Giza.
The reserve heads from Giza date from the mid 4th dynasty
Fourth dynasty of Egypt
The fourth dynasty of ancient Egypt is characterized as a "golden age" of the Old Kingdom. Dynasty IV lasted from ca. 2613 to 2494 BC...
to early 5th dynasty
Fifth dynasty of Egypt
The fifth dynasty of ancient Egypt is often combined with Dynasties III, IV and VI under the group title the Old Kingdom. Dynasty V dates approximately from 2494 to 2345 BC.-Rulers:...
.
| |Image | |Name of tomb owner | |Time Period | |Present location | |Comments | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Giza G 1203 |
Kanefer Overseer of Commissions, Director of Bowmen |
4th Dynasty (Khufu Khufu Khufu , also known as Cheops or, in Manetho, Suphis , was a Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt's Old Kingdom. He reigned from around 2589 to 2566 BC. Khufu was the second pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty. He is generally accepted as being the builder of the Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of... ) |
Hearst Museum, Berkeley 6-19767 | Head was found in burial shaft G 1203A. The head is thought to be female and may represent Kanefer's wife. | |
| Giza G 2110 |
  |
Nefer Secretary of the king in all places, etc. |
4th Dynasty (Khafre) | Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Museum of Fine Arts, Boston The Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, Massachusetts, is one of the largest museums in the United States, attracting over one million visitors a year. It contains over 450,000 works of art, making it one of the most comprehensive collections in the Americas... MFA 06.1886 |
Head was found in burial shaft G 2110A, the burial shaft of Nefer. |
| Giza G 2230 (D 38) |
Image at Giza Archive Image at Giza Archive - profile |
4th or 5th dynasty? | Egyptian Museum Egyptian Museum The Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, known commonly as the Egyptian Museum, in Cairo, Egypt, is home to an extensive collection of ancient Egyptian antiquities. It has 120,000 items, with a representative amount on display, the remainder in storerooms.... , Cairo Cairo Cairo , is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in the Arab world and Africa, and the 16th largest metropolitan area in the world. Nicknamed "The City of a Thousand Minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture, Cairo has long been a centre of the region's political and cultural life... JE 47838 |
Reserve head possibly from D 38. | |
| Giza G 2230 (D 38) |
Image at Giza Archive | 4th or 5th dynasty? | Fragment, possibly originally from the serdab of G 2240 | ||
| Giza G 4140 |
Princess Meritites King's daughter of his body |
Mid to late 4th dynasty | Man: Boston Museum MFA 14.717 Wife: Egyptian Museum, Cairo JE 46217 |
The reserve heads were found in the debris of burial shaft G 4140A | |
| Giza G 4160 |
Image Giza Archive | 4th dynasty (Khufu) | Hildesheim Mus. 2158. | Male reserve-head, damaged, from débris west of tomb. | |
| Giza G 4240 |
Prince Sneferuseneb King's son of his body, etc. |
Mid 4th to early 5th dynasty | Cairo Museum JE 46215. | Head of Sneferuseneb found in burial shaf G 4240A | |
| Giza G 4340 |
Mid to late 4th dynasty | Cairo Museum JE 46218. | A Male reserve-head was found in the débris at bottom of shaft A | ||
| Giza G 4350 |
Mid to late 4th dynasty | Kunsthistorisches Museum Kunsthistorisches Museum The Kunsthistorisches Museum is an art museum in Vienna, Austria. Housed in its festive palatial building on Ringstraße, it is crowned with an octagonal dome... ÄS 7787, Vienna Vienna Vienna is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's primary city, with a population of about 1.723 million , and is by far the largest city in Austria, as well as its cultural, economic, and political centre... . |
Reserve-head found at entrance of burial chamber | ||
| Giza G 4430 |
4th dynasty, Khafre or later | A damaged reserve-head made of clay found in shaft A. | |||
| Giza G 4440 |
  |
Mid 4th to early 5th dynasty | Man: Boston Museum MFA 14.718 Wife: Boston Museum MFA 14.719 |
The man may be a brother of Snefrusonb (tomb G 4240). Both heads were found in Shaft A. More recent opinion suggests that the head previously identified as the wife is a male | |
| Giza G 4540 |
  |
Mid to late 4th dynasty | Boston Museum MFA 21.328 | A Female reserve-head was found in shaft A | |
| Giza G 4560 |
Image at Giza Archives | Mid to late 4th dynasty | Cairo Museum JE 44974 | A female reserve-head was found in the burial chamber. | |
| Giza G 4640 |
Mid to late 4th dynasty | Cairo Museum JE 46216 | Male reserve-head found in shaft A. | ||
| Giza G 4650 |
Image at Giza Archives | Princess Iabtet King's daughter of his body |
Mid to late 4th dynasty | Pelizaeus-Museum, Hildesheim 2384 | Iabtet was a King’s daughter of his body. Reserve-head was found at the entrance of the burial chamber. |
| Giza G 4660 |
Mid to late 4th dynasty | Cairo Museum Temp. No. 19.11.24.5 | Reserve-head, badly weathered, found by Reisner east of tomb G 4560, possibly from G 4660. | ||
| Giza G 4940 (L45) |
  |
Seshemnefer I overseer of royal works, director of the palace, etc. |
Early 5th dynasty | Boston Museum (MFA 21.329) | Limestone reserved head from shaft G 4940B |
| Giza G 5020 Annex |
Egyptian Museum, Cairo JE 67569 | Limestone head found in the annex of G 5020. May originally come from G 4240. | |||
| Giza G 7560 |
Image at Giza Archive | Early 5th dynasty | Boston Museum (MFA 37.643) later MMA 48.156 | Limestone head found in shaft B. | |
| Giza Street G 7500 |
Image at Giza Archive | Boston Museum MFA 27.2010 | Limestone head found in street east of G 7530-7540 | ||
| Giza S 984 |
Image from Giza Archive | Tjentet and Wehemnefret | 5th dynasty | Egyptian Museum, Cairo | Clay reserve head. Wehemnefret may be a daughter of Wenshet (owner of G 4840). Wehemnefret has the title king's daughter (may refer to king's granddaughter here) |
| Giza East Field |
4th-5th dynasty | San Antonio Museum of Art | |||
| Giza East cemetery |
Image from Giza Archive | Egyptian Museum, Cairo JE 37832 | Limestone reserve head from unidentified mastaba | ||
| Unknown |  |
4th dynasty | Reserve head of a man on display at the Petrie Museum, London. (UC15988) | Its authenticity is disputed. | |
| Unknown | 4th-5th dynasty | Ackland Art Museum Ackland Art Museum The Ackland Art Museum is a museum and academic unit of The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. It was founded through the bequest of William Hayes Ackland to The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. It is located at 101 S... 70.17.1 |
A limestone reserve head. | ||
| Memphis? | Image from Swansea Website | 5th-6th dynasty | Swansea University Swansea University Swansea University is a university located in Swansea, Wales, United Kingdom. Swansea University was chartered as University College of Swansea in 1920, as the fourth college of the University of Wales. In 1996, it changed its name to the University of Wales Swansea following structural changes... of Wales (W164) |
Purchased by Sir Henry Wellcome Henry Wellcome Sir Henry Solomon Wellcome FRS was an American-British pharmaceutical entrepreneur. He founded the pharmaceutical company Burroughs Wellcome & Company with his colleague Silas Burroughs, which is one of the four large companies that merged to form GlaxoSmithKline... at a Sotheby's auction in 1928. According the Egypt Centre's website the reserve head comes from Memphis and dates to the 4th dynasty. |
|
| Abusir or Saqqara? | 5th-6th dynasty | In private possession in Belgium as of 1991 | Thought to represent a woman and possibly from Abusir or Saqqara. | ||
| Abusir | Kahotep | Old Kingdom | Ägyptisches Museum, Berlin Berlin Berlin is the capital city of Germany and is one of the 16 states of Germany. With a population of 3.45 million people, Berlin is Germany's largest city. It is the second most populous city proper and the seventh most populous urban area in the European Union... (Berlin 16455) |
Reserve-head of Kahotep found at Abusir - Old Kingdom | |
| Abusir | Kaaper | 5th dynasty | An ear belonging to the reserve head was discovered in the burial chamber. |
Examples of reserve heads can be found at the following museums:
- Ackland Art MuseumAckland Art MuseumThe Ackland Art Museum is a museum and academic unit of The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. It was founded through the bequest of William Hayes Ackland to The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. It is located at 101 S...
, Chapel HillChapel HillChapel Hill may refer to:*Chapel Hill, North Carolina, a town in the United States, or**the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, a major university within the town*Chapel Hill, Alabama...
, North Carolina - Ägyptisches Museum, BerlinBerlinBerlin is the capital city of Germany and is one of the 16 states of Germany. With a population of 3.45 million people, Berlin is Germany's largest city. It is the second most populous city proper and the seventh most populous urban area in the European Union...
- Egyptian MuseumEgyptian MuseumThe Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, known commonly as the Egyptian Museum, in Cairo, Egypt, is home to an extensive collection of ancient Egyptian antiquities. It has 120,000 items, with a representative amount on display, the remainder in storerooms....
, CairoCairoCairo , is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in the Arab world and Africa, and the 16th largest metropolitan area in the world. Nicknamed "The City of a Thousand Minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture, Cairo has long been a centre of the region's political and cultural life... - Kunsthistorisches MuseumKunsthistorisches MuseumThe Kunsthistorisches Museum is an art museum in Vienna, Austria. Housed in its festive palatial building on Ringstraße, it is crowned with an octagonal dome...
, ViennaViennaVienna is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's primary city, with a population of about 1.723 million , and is by far the largest city in Austria, as well as its cultural, economic, and political centre... - Museum of Fine Arts, BostonMuseum of Fine Arts, BostonThe Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, Massachusetts, is one of the largest museums in the United States, attracting over one million visitors a year. It contains over 450,000 works of art, making it one of the most comprehensive collections in the Americas...
- Petrie Museum of Egyptian ArchaeologyPetrie Museum of Egyptian ArchaeologyThe Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology in London, England, which is part of University College LondonMuseums & Collections. The museum contains over 80,000 objects and ranks among some of the world's leading collections of Egyptian and Sudanese material...
, LondonLondonLondon is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its... - Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of AnthropologyPhoebe A. Hearst Museum of AnthropologyThe Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology is an anthropology museum located in Berkeley, California...
, BerkeleyBerkeley, CaliforniaBerkeley is a city on the east shore of the San Francisco Bay in Northern California, United States. Its neighbors to the south are the cities of Oakland and Emeryville. To the north is the city of Albany and the unincorporated community of Kensington... - Metropolitan Museum of ArtMetropolitan Museum of ArtThe Metropolitan Museum of Art is a renowned art museum in New York City. Its permanent collection contains more than two million works, divided into nineteen curatorial departments. The main building, located on the eastern edge of Central Park along Manhattan's Museum Mile, is one of the...
, New York CityNew York CityNew York is the most populous city in the United States and the center of the New York Metropolitan Area, one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world. New York exerts a significant impact upon global commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education, and... - San Antonio Museum of ArtSan Antonio Museum of ArtThe San Antonio Museum of Art is a museum in San Antonio, Texas. In the early 1970s, plans were initiated to purchase the historic Lone Star Brewery complex for conversion into the San Antonio Museum of Art and following a $7.2 million renovation, the San Antonio Museum of Art opened to the...
, Texas - Swansea UniversitySwansea UniversitySwansea University is a university located in Swansea, Wales, United Kingdom. Swansea University was chartered as University College of Swansea in 1920, as the fourth college of the University of Wales. In 1996, it changed its name to the University of Wales Swansea following structural changes...