Righteous army
Encyclopedia
Righteous armies, sometimes called irregular armies or militias, have appeared several times in Korean history
, when the national armies were in need of assistance.
The first righteous armies emerged during the Khitan invasions of Korea and the Mongol invasions of Korea
. They subsequently rose up during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598), the first and second Manchu invasions, and during the Japanese occupation
and preceding events.
During the long period of Japanese invasion and occupation from 1890 to 1945, the disbanded imperial guard, and Confucian scholars, as well as farmers, formed over 60 successive righteous armies to fight for Korean freedom on the Korean peninsula. These were called the Righteous armies, who were preceded by the Donghak
movement, and succeeded by various Korean independence movements in the 1920s and beyond which declared Korean independence from Japanese occupation.
that fought the Japanese army that twice invaded Korea
during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598). Righteous armies were most active in the Jeolla
Province in the southwestern area of Korea. Righteous armies included peasants, scholars, former government officials, and Buddhist warrior monks as well. Righteous armies were important during the war because a significant portion of the expected government organized resistance had been destroyed in Gyeongsang and Chungcheong Provinces in the south by the force of Japanese arms at the outset. The natural defenders had been stripped away and the residue had been called north to help protect the fleeing king. Moreover, many of the district officers had obtained their commissions not through merit, but by bribery or influence and were, essentially incompetent or cowards. This was highlighted in their performance and in the performance of their units in the early days of the conflict.
Late Joseon dynasty
period Korean nationalism
outgrew the unplanned, spontaneous, and disorganized Donghak movement
, and became more violent as the Japanese occupation began a brutal regime throughout the Korean peninsula and pursued repressive policies against the Korean people.
The Japanese occupiers fought with state-of-the-art cannons, machine guns, repeaters, mounted cavalry reconnaissance units in the mountains, and an entrenched class of informers and criminals developed over the previous decade before the battles began.
Koreans fought with antique muzzle-loaders, staves and iron bars, and their hands. There were rare instances of modern weapons, and a few enemy weapons captured. Europe, particularly England and Germany, and the western allies were on the side of Japan, profiting from huge arms and naval sales, and did much to prevent Korean forces from being resupplied.
For at least 13 years after 1905, small irregular forces, often led by regular army commanders, fought skirmishes and battles throughout Korea against Japanese police, armies, and underworld mercenaries who functioned to support Japanese corporations looting Korea, and as well armed Japanese settlers who seized Korean farms and land. In one period, according to Japanese records in Boto Tobatsu-shi (Annals of the Subjugation of the Insurgent), between October 1907 and April 1908, over 1,908 attacks were made by the Korean people against the invaders.
While most attacks were done using available weapons, and bare hands, international arms dealers profited. Arms dealers and governments who supplied the Korean resistance included English arms dealers, Chinese arms dealers from across the Yalu and in coastal waters; German arms dealers provided Mausers, and a French cruiser in September 1908, resupplied Korean Catholic armies in payment for gold at exorbitant prices. Smugglers from Japan as well supplied Murada weapons, with links to anti-Meiji forces who hoped to see Ito and his clan toppled in the wake of disasters in the Japanese economy.
After the Russian revolution, some weaponry was diverted from the White forces into what is now North Korea, and supporters built there, however this was sparse and while white Russian mercenaries fought against the Japanese, this was a minor element.
, the Righteous Army attacked the Japanese army, Japanese merchants and pro-Japanese bureaucrats in the provinces of Gangwon
, Chungcheong
, Jeolla
and Gyeongsang
.
Choe Ik-hyeon was captured by the Japanese and taken to Tsushima Island
where he went on hunger strike
and finally died as a martyr in 1906. Shin Dol-seok
, an uneducated peasant commanded over 3,000 troops. Among the troops were former government soldiers, poor peasants, fishermen, tiger hunters, miners, merchants, and laborers.
In 1907, the Righteous Army under the command of Yi In-yeong massed 10,000 troops to liberate Seoul and defeat the Japanese. The Army came within 12 km of Seoul but could not withstand the Japanese counter-offensive. The Righteous Army was no match for two infantry divisions of 20,000 Japanese soldiers backed by warships moored near Inchon.
The Righteous Army retreated from Seoul and the war went on for two more years. Over 17,000 Righteous Army soldiers were killed and more than 37,000 were wounded in combat. Unable to fight the Japanese army head-on, the Righteous Army split into small bands of partisans
to carry on the War of Liberation in China, Siberia and the Jangbaik Mountains in Korea. The Japanese troops first quashed the Peasant Army and then disbanded what remained of the government army. Many of the surviving guerrilla and anti-Japanese government troops fled to Manchuria
and Siberia
and carried on their fight.
History of Korea
The Korean Peninsula was inhabited from the Lower Paleolithic about 400,000-500,000 years ago. Archeological evidence indicates that the presence of modern humans in northeast Asia dates to 39,000 years ago. The earliest known Korean pottery dates to around 8000 BC, and the Neolithic period began...
, when the national armies were in need of assistance.
The first righteous armies emerged during the Khitan invasions of Korea and the Mongol invasions of Korea
Mongol invasions of Korea
The Mongol invasions of Korea consisted of a series of campaigns by the Mongol Empire against Korea, then known as Goryeo, from 1231 to 1270...
. They subsequently rose up during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598), the first and second Manchu invasions, and during the Japanese occupation
Korea under Japanese rule
Korea was under Japanese rule as part of Japan's 35-year imperialist expansion . Japanese rule ended in 1945 shortly after the Japanese defeat in World War II....
and preceding events.
During the long period of Japanese invasion and occupation from 1890 to 1945, the disbanded imperial guard, and Confucian scholars, as well as farmers, formed over 60 successive righteous armies to fight for Korean freedom on the Korean peninsula. These were called the Righteous armies, who were preceded by the Donghak
Donghak
Donghak is a Korean religion founded in 1860 by Choe Je-u. Donghak venerated the god Haneullim and believed that man is not created by a supernatural god but man is instead caused by an innate god...
movement, and succeeded by various Korean independence movements in the 1920s and beyond which declared Korean independence from Japanese occupation.
Righteous armies during the Japanese invasions of Korea
The righteous armies were an irregular militaryIrregular military
Irregular military refers to any non-standard military. Being defined by exclusion, there is significant variance in what comes under the term. It can refer to the type of military organization, or to the type of tactics used....
that fought the Japanese army that twice invaded Korea
Korea
Korea ) is an East Asian geographic region that is currently divided into two separate sovereign states — North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by the People's Republic of China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the...
during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598). Righteous armies were most active in the Jeolla
Jeolla
Jeolla was a province in southwestern Korea, one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and the Special City of Gwangju as well as Jeju Island...
Province in the southwestern area of Korea. Righteous armies included peasants, scholars, former government officials, and Buddhist warrior monks as well. Righteous armies were important during the war because a significant portion of the expected government organized resistance had been destroyed in Gyeongsang and Chungcheong Provinces in the south by the force of Japanese arms at the outset. The natural defenders had been stripped away and the residue had been called north to help protect the fleeing king. Moreover, many of the district officers had obtained their commissions not through merit, but by bribery or influence and were, essentially incompetent or cowards. This was highlighted in their performance and in the performance of their units in the early days of the conflict.
In Gyeongsang province
- HapcheonHapcheonHapcheon County is a county in South Gyeongsang Province, South Korea. Famous people born in the county include former South Korean president Chun Doo-hwan.-Location:...
(June 6 1592) : Kim Myeon and Jeong In-hong against Mori TerumotoMori TerumotoMōri Terumoto , son of Mōri Takamoto and grandson and successor of the great warlord Mōri Motonari, fought against Toyotomi Hideyoshi but was eventually overcome, participated in the Kyūshū campaign on Hideyoshi's side and built Hiroshima Castle, thus essentially founding Hiroshima.Terumoto was a... - ChogyeChogyeChogye may refer to*Jogye Order, a Korean Buddhist order*Hapcheon, a county in South Gyeongsang province, South Korea...
(June 7 1592) : Son In-gap against Mori TerumotoMori TerumotoMōri Terumoto , son of Mōri Takamoto and grandson and successor of the great warlord Mōri Motonari, fought against Toyotomi Hideyoshi but was eventually overcome, participated in the Kyūshū campaign on Hideyoshi's side and built Hiroshima Castle, thus essentially founding Hiroshima.Terumoto was a... - Ucheokhyeon (July 10 1592) : Kim Myeon and Kim Seong-il against Kobayakawa TakakageKobayakawa Takakagewas a samurai retainer of Toyotomi Hideyoshi during Japan's Sengoku period, and the son of Mōri Motonari. Adopted by the head of the Kobayakawa clan, Takakage took his name, and succeeded his adoptive father to become head of the Kobayakawa clan following his death in 1545.As head of the Kobayakawa...
- YeongcheonYeongcheonYeongcheon is a city in North Gyeongsang Province, South Korea.Yeongcheon is located 350 km southeast of Seoul, in the southeast of North Gyeongsang Province...
(July 27 1592) : Gwon Ung-su and Park Jin against Fukushima MasanoriFukushima Masanoriwas a Japanese daimyo of the late Sengoku Period to early Edo Period who served as lord of the Hiroshima Domain. A retainer of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, he fought in the battle of Shizugatake in 1583, and soon became known as one of Seven Spears of Shizugatake which also included Katō Kiyomasa and... - UiryeongUiryeongUiryeong County is a county in Gyeongsangnam-do, South Korea. It is one of the least populated counties in Korea.In 1938, Uiryeong native Lee Byung-chull founded Samsung Group in nearby Daegu....
: Gwak Jae-uGwak Jae-uGeneral Gwak Jae-u was a Korean patriot from Uiryeong. In 1592, nine days into the Japanese invasion of Korea, he formed a militia to fight against the Japanese army. He was originally common people, but King Seonjo of Joseon granted him government service.-Raising an army:Gwak Jae-u disrupted...
against Kobayakawa TakakageKobayakawa Takakagewas a samurai retainer of Toyotomi Hideyoshi during Japan's Sengoku period, and the son of Mōri Motonari. Adopted by the head of the Kobayakawa clan, Takakage took his name, and succeeded his adoptive father to become head of the Kobayakawa clan following his death in 1545.As head of the Kobayakawa... - Hyeonpung : Gwak Jae-u against Hashiba Hidekatsu
- Yeongsan : Gwak Jae-u against Hashiba Hidekatsu
In Jeolla province
- Damyang (June 25 1592) : Go Gyeong-myeong and Yang Dae-park
- NajuNajuNaju is a city in South Jeolla Province, South Korea.The capital of South Jeolla was located at Naju until it was moved to Gwangju in 1895. The name Jeolla actually originates from the first character of Jeonju and the first character of Naju . Dongshin University is situated in Naju...
: Kim Cheon-il - GwangjuGwangjuGwangju is the sixth largest city in South Korea. It is a designated metropolitan city under the direct control of the central government's Home Minister...
: Kim Deok-nyeong
In Chungcheong province
- Geumsan (July 9 1592) : Go Gyeong-myeong and Gwak Yong against Kobayakawa TakakageKobayakawa Takakagewas a samurai retainer of Toyotomi Hideyoshi during Japan's Sengoku period, and the son of Mōri Motonari. Adopted by the head of the Kobayakawa clan, Takakage took his name, and succeeded his adoptive father to become head of the Kobayakawa clan following his death in 1545.As head of the Kobayakawa...
- Okcheon : Jo Heon
- Geumsan : Yeong-gyu and Jo Heon
- CheongjuCheongjuCheongju is the capital city of Chungcheongbuk-do , South Korea. The city is divided into two wards , Heungdeok-gu and Sangdang-gu .-History:...
: Yeong-gyu and Jo Heon
19th- and 20th-century righteous armies
Joseon Dynasty
Joseon , was a Korean state founded by Taejo Yi Seong-gye that lasted for approximately five centuries. It was founded in the aftermath of the overthrow of the Goryeo at what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul...
period Korean nationalism
Korean nationalism
Korean nationalism refers to nationalism among the Korean people. In the Korean context, this encompasses various of movements throughout history to maintain the Korean cultural identity, history, and ethnicity.-History:...
outgrew the unplanned, spontaneous, and disorganized Donghak movement
Donghak Peasant Revolution
The Donghak Peasant Revolution, also known as the Donghak Peasant Movement, was an anti-government, anti-feudal and anti-foreign uprising in 1894 in the southern Korea which was the catalyst for the First Sino-Japanese War....
, and became more violent as the Japanese occupation began a brutal regime throughout the Korean peninsula and pursued repressive policies against the Korean people.
The Japanese occupiers fought with state-of-the-art cannons, machine guns, repeaters, mounted cavalry reconnaissance units in the mountains, and an entrenched class of informers and criminals developed over the previous decade before the battles began.
Koreans fought with antique muzzle-loaders, staves and iron bars, and their hands. There were rare instances of modern weapons, and a few enemy weapons captured. Europe, particularly England and Germany, and the western allies were on the side of Japan, profiting from huge arms and naval sales, and did much to prevent Korean forces from being resupplied.
For at least 13 years after 1905, small irregular forces, often led by regular army commanders, fought skirmishes and battles throughout Korea against Japanese police, armies, and underworld mercenaries who functioned to support Japanese corporations looting Korea, and as well armed Japanese settlers who seized Korean farms and land. In one period, according to Japanese records in Boto Tobatsu-shi (Annals of the Subjugation of the Insurgent), between October 1907 and April 1908, over 1,908 attacks were made by the Korean people against the invaders.
While most attacks were done using available weapons, and bare hands, international arms dealers profited. Arms dealers and governments who supplied the Korean resistance included English arms dealers, Chinese arms dealers from across the Yalu and in coastal waters; German arms dealers provided Mausers, and a French cruiser in September 1908, resupplied Korean Catholic armies in payment for gold at exorbitant prices. Smugglers from Japan as well supplied Murada weapons, with links to anti-Meiji forces who hoped to see Ito and his clan toppled in the wake of disasters in the Japanese economy.
After the Russian revolution, some weaponry was diverted from the White forces into what is now North Korea, and supporters built there, however this was sparse and while white Russian mercenaries fought against the Japanese, this was a minor element.
During the Righteous Armies Wars
The Righteous Army was formed by Yu In-seok and other Confucian scholars during the Peasant Wars. Its ranks swelled after the Queen's murder by the Japanese troops and Koreans. Under the leadership of Min Jeong-sik, Choe Ik-hyeon and Shin Dol-seokShin Dol-seok
Shin Dol-seok was a general of the Righteous Armies who fought against the Japanese army in the early 20th century. He was born in Yeonghae , North Gyeongsang Province. Because of the Eulmi Incident, in which a Korean empress was killed by the Japanese army, and an ordinance prohibiting topknot...
, the Righteous Army attacked the Japanese army, Japanese merchants and pro-Japanese bureaucrats in the provinces of Gangwon
Gangwon (historical)
Gangwon Province or Gangwon-do was one of the Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The province was formed in 1395, and derived its name from the names of the principal cities of Gangneung and the provincial capital Wonju .In 1895, Gangwon-do was replaced by the Districts of...
, Chungcheong
Chungcheong
Chungcheong was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Chungcheong was located in the southwest of Korea...
, Jeolla
Jeolla
Jeolla was a province in southwestern Korea, one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and the Special City of Gwangju as well as Jeju Island...
and Gyeongsang
Gyeongsang
Gyeongsang was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Gyeongsang was located in the southeast of Korea....
.
Choe Ik-hyeon was captured by the Japanese and taken to Tsushima Island
Tsushima Island
Tsushima Island is an island of the Japanese Archipelago situated in the middle of the Tsushima Strait at 34°25'N and 129°20'E. The main island of Tsushima was once a single island, but the island was divided into two in 1671 by the Ōfunakosiseto canal and into three in 1900 by the Manzekiseto canal...
where he went on hunger strike
Hunger strike
A hunger strike is a method of non-violent resistance or pressure in which participants fast as an act of political protest, or to provoke feelings of guilt in others, usually with the objective to achieve a specific goal, such as a policy change. Most hunger strikers will take liquids but not...
and finally died as a martyr in 1906. Shin Dol-seok
Shin Dol-seok
Shin Dol-seok was a general of the Righteous Armies who fought against the Japanese army in the early 20th century. He was born in Yeonghae , North Gyeongsang Province. Because of the Eulmi Incident, in which a Korean empress was killed by the Japanese army, and an ordinance prohibiting topknot...
, an uneducated peasant commanded over 3,000 troops. Among the troops were former government soldiers, poor peasants, fishermen, tiger hunters, miners, merchants, and laborers.
In 1907, the Righteous Army under the command of Yi In-yeong massed 10,000 troops to liberate Seoul and defeat the Japanese. The Army came within 12 km of Seoul but could not withstand the Japanese counter-offensive. The Righteous Army was no match for two infantry divisions of 20,000 Japanese soldiers backed by warships moored near Inchon.
The Righteous Army retreated from Seoul and the war went on for two more years. Over 17,000 Righteous Army soldiers were killed and more than 37,000 were wounded in combat. Unable to fight the Japanese army head-on, the Righteous Army split into small bands of partisans
Partisan (military)
A partisan is a member of an irregular military force formed to oppose control of an area by a foreign power or by an army of occupation by some kind of insurgent activity...
to carry on the War of Liberation in China, Siberia and the Jangbaik Mountains in Korea. The Japanese troops first quashed the Peasant Army and then disbanded what remained of the government army. Many of the surviving guerrilla and anti-Japanese government troops fled to Manchuria
Manchuria
Manchuria is a historical name given to a large geographic region in northeast Asia. Depending on the definition of its extent, Manchuria usually falls entirely within the People's Republic of China, or is sometimes divided between China and Russia. The region is commonly referred to as Northeast...
and Siberia
Siberia
Siberia is an extensive region constituting almost all of Northern Asia. Comprising the central and eastern portion of the Russian Federation, it was part of the Soviet Union from its beginning, as its predecessor states, the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire, conquered it during the 16th...
and carried on their fight.
Armies and orders of battle
Of the sixty righteous armies, the list and descriptions below follow what is known of the names of the more well known armies and their sequential appearance in combat; individual generals and named figures are given larger biographies on separate articles which cite more historical background.In 1895: Righteous army of Eulmi
- Yi So-ung
- No Eung-gyu
- Gi U-man
- Yi Gang-nyeon
In 1905: Righteous army of Eulsa
- Choe Ik-hyeon
- Min Jong-sik
- Shin Dol-seokShin Dol-seokShin Dol-seok was a general of the Righteous Armies who fought against the Japanese army in the early 20th century. He was born in Yeonghae , North Gyeongsang Province. Because of the Eulmi Incident, in which a Korean empress was killed by the Japanese army, and an ordinance prohibiting topknot...
- Jeong Yong-gi
- Yi Han-gu
- Im Byeong-chan
In 1907: Righteous army of Jeongmi
- Hong Beom-doHong Beom-doHong Beom-do ; August 27, 1868 – October 25, 1943), was a Korean independence activist. Hong was born in Chasong, North Pyongan.- Biography :...
- Cha Doseon
- Kim Su-min
- Min Geung-ho
13 province alliance righteous army in 1908
- Commander in chief : Yi In-yeong
- Commander : Heo Wi
- Representative of GangwonGangwon (historical)Gangwon Province or Gangwon-do was one of the Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The province was formed in 1395, and derived its name from the names of the principal cities of Gangneung and the provincial capital Wonju .In 1895, Gangwon-do was replaced by the Districts of...
: Min Geung-ho - Representative of ChungcheongChungcheongChungcheong was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Chungcheong was located in the southwest of Korea...
: Yi Gang-nyeon - Representative of GyeongsangGyeongsangGyeongsang was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Gyeongsang was located in the southeast of Korea....
: Park Jeong-bin - Representative of Gyeonggi, HwanghaeHwanghaeHwanghae was one of the Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Hwanghae was located in the northwest of Korea. The provincial capital was Haeju.The regional name for the province was Haesŏ .-History:...
: Gwon Jung-hui - Representative of Pyeongan : Bang In-gwan
- Representative of North Hamgyeong : Jeong Bong-jun
- Representative of JeollaJeollaJeolla was a province in southwestern Korea, one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and the Special City of Gwangju as well as Jeju Island...
: Mun Tae-su
See also
- List of Korea-related topics
- History of KoreaHistory of KoreaThe Korean Peninsula was inhabited from the Lower Paleolithic about 400,000-500,000 years ago. Archeological evidence indicates that the presence of modern humans in northeast Asia dates to 39,000 years ago. The earliest known Korean pottery dates to around 8000 BC, and the Neolithic period began...
- Korean independence movementKorean independence movementThe Korean independence movement grew out of the Japanese colonial rule of the Korean peninsula from 1910 to 1945. After the Japanese surrendered, Korea became independent; that day is now an annual holiday called Gwangbokjeol in South Korea, and Chogukhaebangŭi nal in North Korea.-Background:In...
- Korean Liberation ArmyKorean Liberation ArmyThe Korean Liberation Army, established on September 17, 1941 in Chongqing, China, was the armed force of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea...
External links
- Professor Song Su-Pak has done a sociological analysis of the background for the Righteous army leaders.