Rijksmuseum van Oudheden
Encyclopedia
The Rijksmuseum van Oudheden (English
: National Museum of Antiquities) is the national archaeological
museum
of the Netherlands
. It is located in Leiden. The Museum grew out of the collection of Leiden University
and still closely co-operates with its Faculty of Archaeology. The museum calls itself the national center for archaeology, and focuses on ancient Egypt
, the ancient Near East
, the classical world of Greece
, Etruria
and Rome
and the early (prehistoric, Roman and Medieval) Netherlands.
In the central hall of the museum stands an original Egyptian temple, the Temple of Taffeh
, which was taken apart in Egypt and reconstructed in the museum.
was bequeathed to Leiden University
. The bequest comprised about 150 antiquities and was published in 1746 by a professor of the university. It was put on public display, but poorly taken care of until half a century later it would finally get an official curator. This curator was classicist dr. Caspar Reuvens
, the world's first archaeology
professor. Along with his duties as a professor at the university came the care of the archaeological cabinet, then consisting mainly of the Papenbroek inheritance.
Reuvens quickly added other collections from both within and outside Leiden to the university's antiquities. Antiquities from the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam were transferred to Leiden with government support in 1825. Some pieces from the Thoms Collection were among the favorites of the director of the Amsterdam museum. It was agreed that these would not be moved to Leiden until after his directorship. These became part of the Leiden collection in 1844. In 1826 a collection of prehistorical materials arrived from the Museum of Natural History.
. It belonged to a retired Flemish colonel who had begun collecting during a stay in Athens
. In 1820 this collection was offered to the government of the Low Countries, and Reuvens was sent to determine its value and recommend on whether to buy or not. Reuvens was enthusiastic about the collection because it contained original Greek sculpture and Greek pottery, categories which lacked in the Leiden collection until then. Cautioning the ministry not to buy at any price, the Rottiers collection was eventually sold for the sum of 12,000 guilders and placed in the National Museum of Antiquities.
In 1822 Rottiers sold a second collection, of smaller importance, to the government. The best piece in this collection would later turn out to be a modern cast of a marble head, a forgery. With both the first and the second Rottiers collections the origins would remain shady. In both cases it was hinted or outright claimed that Rottiers respectively his son had dug up at least part of the antiquities themselves. However in both cases it would turn out that perhaps all of the collection was bought. Rottiers also repeatedly admitted to selling forgeries and misleading buyers, but told Reuvens that he would never do so to him and that his earlier mistakes were youthful folly.
From 1824 to 1826 Rottiers made a journey through the Mediterranean, paid for by the ministry. This journey was Rottiers own idea, and the purpose of it was to buy antiquities. Reuvens, who was not very enthusiastic about this project, was asked to provide Rottiers with instructions. During these travels Rottiers complained a lot, and for a while failed to produce any real results. The ministry had to go as far as send him an official warning to stop using government funds for anything other than buying antiquities. Plans of Rottiers to start his own excavations were never discussed with Reuvens, and eventually Rottiers actually excavated on Melos. After this excavation Rottiers continued his travels and bought antiquities. During a lengthy stay on Rhodes
he studied and described the medieval architecture, large parts of which would later be destroyed making the drawings commissioned by Rottiers invaluable.
In March and September 1826 the museum received the acquired antiquities. Reuvens wrote a largely negative report. Though he was pleased with some of the pieces, most were hardly special and Rottiers had not provided substantial background information.
was collecting and excavating in Tunisia
. After selling his personal collection to the government, Humbert was asked to return to Tunisia on an archaeological expedition. Raised to the Order of the Netherlands Lion, with instructions from Reuvens and with a state-funded budget Humbert would collect and excavate antiquities in Tunisia from 1822 to 1824. Most important about this first expedition by Humbert was the acquisition of eight statues, which are still on display as centerpieces in the museum.
A second expedition by Humbert never reached Tunisia because Humbert preferred staying in Italy. Despite this blatant disregard of the agreements, the expedition did produce some considerable results. A collection of Etruscan
artifacts, known as the Museo Corazzi, was bought for over 30.000 guilders but pleased Reuvens because Etruscan antiquities were virtually unknown outside Italy at the time.
By far the most important deal of the expedition was the acquisition of the very large d'Anasty Collection of Egyptian antiquities. After a lengthy period of negotiations by the Dutch ambassador in Rome and Humbert with agents of d'Anasty the collection was eventually sold for roughly 115.000 guilders. It would be the largest deal in the careers of Humbert and Reuvens both, and provided the museum with an internationally appraised Egyptian collection.
Reuvens died in 1835, after suffering what seems to be a severe stroke by the reports. He left behind a young museum with a scholarly renowned collection, which had grown from the Papenbroek inheritance to now include a large amount of Etruscan, Egyptian, Carthaginian, Roman, Greek and other items.
In 1839 Leemans, now appointed director, bought some 100 vases with funds from the king. They belonged to a collection that had been excavated a decade before in Italy. Leemans published this collection in 1840, and had published the Egyptian collection the year before. The Etruscan collection was published by a colleague. Publications would continue and the next period in the history of the museum is described as "a period of consolidation after the restless pioneer years".
In 1821 the archaeological cabinet was moved to a new wing of the Museum of Natural History. Reuvens was unhappy with this location as well though, because it was much too small for the growing collection and because the windows provided far from enough light. In 1824 Reuvens was offered some more room of the Museum of Natural History, but Reuvens refused the insufficient extra space and proposed an entirely new building designed especially for the National Museum of Antiquities which would also give him a lecture hall, restoration facilities and other required rooms. Reuvens plans for this new building would prove much too expensive unfortunately.
The collection continued growing however and the room granted to it was obviously insufficient. Several other solutions were sought, including redecorating a medieval church and giving Reuvens part of a new academy building. Reuvens refused these options however, because they weren't real solutions. This led to considering a much more drastic plan: moving the museum altogether to another city. Brussels
, Amsterdam
and the Hague
were considered. Reuvens argued against all of these, using Leiden's thriving academic climate in the humanities as a main argument for keeping the collection there. Eventually Amsterdam became the prime candidate, being the capital of the Netherlands and Brussels having seceded from the kingdom along with the rest of Belgium. Before the relocation could begin however, the academic world was shocked by the unexpected death of the still young Reuvens.
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
: National Museum of Antiquities) is the national archaeological
Archaeology
Archaeology, or archeology , is the study of human society, primarily through the recovery and analysis of the material culture and environmental data that they have left behind, which includes artifacts, architecture, biofacts and cultural landscapes...
museum
Museum
A museum is an institution that cares for a collection of artifacts and other objects of scientific, artistic, cultural, or historical importance and makes them available for public viewing through exhibits that may be permanent or temporary. Most large museums are located in major cities...
of the Netherlands
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
. It is located in Leiden. The Museum grew out of the collection of Leiden University
Leiden University
Leiden University , located in the city of Leiden, is the oldest university in the Netherlands. The university was founded in 1575 by William, Prince of Orange, leader of the Dutch Revolt in the Eighty Years' War. The royal Dutch House of Orange-Nassau and Leiden University still have a close...
and still closely co-operates with its Faculty of Archaeology. The museum calls itself the national center for archaeology, and focuses on ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt was an ancient civilization of Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh...
, the ancient Near East
Ancient Near East
The ancient Near East was the home of early civilizations within a region roughly corresponding to the modern Middle East: Mesopotamia , ancient Egypt, ancient Iran The ancient Near East was the home of early civilizations within a region roughly corresponding to the modern Middle East: Mesopotamia...
, the classical world of Greece
Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece is a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Included in Ancient Greece is the...
, Etruria
Etruria
Etruria—usually referred to in Greek and Latin source texts as Tyrrhenia—was a region of Central Italy, an area that covered part of what now are Tuscany, Latium, Emilia-Romagna, and Umbria. A particularly noteworthy work dealing with Etruscan locations is D. H...
and Rome
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
and the early (prehistoric, Roman and Medieval) Netherlands.
Current collection
The current collection of the museum is divided in the following categories:- Ancient EgyptAncient EgyptAncient Egypt was an ancient civilization of Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh...
- Ancient Near EastAncient Near EastThe ancient Near East was the home of early civilizations within a region roughly corresponding to the modern Middle East: Mesopotamia , ancient Egypt, ancient Iran The ancient Near East was the home of early civilizations within a region roughly corresponding to the modern Middle East: Mesopotamia...
- Etruscan civilizationEtruscan civilizationEtruscan civilization is the modern English name given to a civilization of ancient Italy in the area corresponding roughly to Tuscany. The ancient Romans called its creators the Tusci or Etrusci...
- Ancient GreeceAncient GreeceAncient Greece is a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Included in Ancient Greece is the...
- Ancient RomeAncient RomeAncient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
- Prehistoric Netherlands
- Roman Netherlands
- Medieval Netherlands
In the central hall of the museum stands an original Egyptian temple, the Temple of Taffeh
Temple of Taffeh
The Temple of Taffeh is an Ancient Egyptian temple which was presented to the Netherlands for its help in contributing to the historical preservation of Egyptian antiquities in the 1960's. The temple was built of sandstone between AD 1-14 on the orders of the Roman emperor Augustus. It was part of...
, which was taken apart in Egypt and reconstructed in the museum.
Reuvens takes charge
The collection of the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden began with an inheritance in 1743. After the death of Gerard van Papenbroek his collectionPapenbroek Collection
The Papenbroek Collection is one of the largest 18th century Dutch art collections. After the death of its owner, Gerard van Papenbroek , the majority of the collection was bequeathed to Leiden University...
was bequeathed to Leiden University
Leiden University
Leiden University , located in the city of Leiden, is the oldest university in the Netherlands. The university was founded in 1575 by William, Prince of Orange, leader of the Dutch Revolt in the Eighty Years' War. The royal Dutch House of Orange-Nassau and Leiden University still have a close...
. The bequest comprised about 150 antiquities and was published in 1746 by a professor of the university. It was put on public display, but poorly taken care of until half a century later it would finally get an official curator. This curator was classicist dr. Caspar Reuvens
Caspar Reuvens
Caspar Jacob Christiaan Reuvens was a Dutch historian and archaeologist. He was the founding director of the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden in Leiden, the world's first ever professor of archaeology , and conducted the first excavations at the Roman provincial site Forum Hadriani...
, the world's first archaeology
Archaeology
Archaeology, or archeology , is the study of human society, primarily through the recovery and analysis of the material culture and environmental data that they have left behind, which includes artifacts, architecture, biofacts and cultural landscapes...
professor. Along with his duties as a professor at the university came the care of the archaeological cabinet, then consisting mainly of the Papenbroek inheritance.
Reuvens quickly added other collections from both within and outside Leiden to the university's antiquities. Antiquities from the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam were transferred to Leiden with government support in 1825. Some pieces from the Thoms Collection were among the favorites of the director of the Amsterdam museum. It was agreed that these would not be moved to Leiden until after his directorship. These became part of the Leiden collection in 1844. In 1826 a collection of prehistorical materials arrived from the Museum of Natural History.
The contributions of Rottiers
The growth of the National Museum of Antiquities would prove to be depended much more upon foreign investments. Despite the gathering of antiquities from various Dutch organizations, the really important additions to the museum would come from buying personal collections. Among the first of these was the first Rottiers CollectionRottiers Collection
The Rottiers Collection refers to three 19th century art collections that became an integral part of the collection of the Dutch National Museum of Antiquities. The first two collections were personal and sold by Flemish Colonel B.E.A...
. It belonged to a retired Flemish colonel who had begun collecting during a stay in Athens
Athens
Athens , is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state...
. In 1820 this collection was offered to the government of the Low Countries, and Reuvens was sent to determine its value and recommend on whether to buy or not. Reuvens was enthusiastic about the collection because it contained original Greek sculpture and Greek pottery, categories which lacked in the Leiden collection until then. Cautioning the ministry not to buy at any price, the Rottiers collection was eventually sold for the sum of 12,000 guilders and placed in the National Museum of Antiquities.
In 1822 Rottiers sold a second collection, of smaller importance, to the government. The best piece in this collection would later turn out to be a modern cast of a marble head, a forgery. With both the first and the second Rottiers collections the origins would remain shady. In both cases it was hinted or outright claimed that Rottiers respectively his son had dug up at least part of the antiquities themselves. However in both cases it would turn out that perhaps all of the collection was bought. Rottiers also repeatedly admitted to selling forgeries and misleading buyers, but told Reuvens that he would never do so to him and that his earlier mistakes were youthful folly.
From 1824 to 1826 Rottiers made a journey through the Mediterranean, paid for by the ministry. This journey was Rottiers own idea, and the purpose of it was to buy antiquities. Reuvens, who was not very enthusiastic about this project, was asked to provide Rottiers with instructions. During these travels Rottiers complained a lot, and for a while failed to produce any real results. The ministry had to go as far as send him an official warning to stop using government funds for anything other than buying antiquities. Plans of Rottiers to start his own excavations were never discussed with Reuvens, and eventually Rottiers actually excavated on Melos. After this excavation Rottiers continued his travels and bought antiquities. During a lengthy stay on Rhodes
Rhodes
Rhodes is an island in Greece, located in the eastern Aegean Sea. It is the largest of the Dodecanese islands in terms of both land area and population, with a population of 117,007, and also the island group's historical capital. Administratively the island forms a separate municipality within...
he studied and described the medieval architecture, large parts of which would later be destroyed making the drawings commissioned by Rottiers invaluable.
In March and September 1826 the museum received the acquired antiquities. Reuvens wrote a largely negative report. Though he was pleased with some of the pieces, most were hardly special and Rottiers had not provided substantial background information.
The contributions of Humbert
Rottiers was not the only agent working for the Dutch government procuring antiquities however. While Rottiers was working in the eastern Mediterranean, Jean Emile HumbertJean Emile Humbert
Jean Emile Humbert was a Dutch lieutenant-colonel who can be credited with rediscovering ancient Carthage. As an agent for the Dutch government he procured vital parts of the collection of the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden...
was collecting and excavating in Tunisia
Tunisia
Tunisia , officially the Tunisian RepublicThe long name of Tunisia in other languages used in the country is: , is the northernmost country in Africa. It is a Maghreb country and is bordered by Algeria to the west, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Its area...
. After selling his personal collection to the government, Humbert was asked to return to Tunisia on an archaeological expedition. Raised to the Order of the Netherlands Lion, with instructions from Reuvens and with a state-funded budget Humbert would collect and excavate antiquities in Tunisia from 1822 to 1824. Most important about this first expedition by Humbert was the acquisition of eight statues, which are still on display as centerpieces in the museum.
A second expedition by Humbert never reached Tunisia because Humbert preferred staying in Italy. Despite this blatant disregard of the agreements, the expedition did produce some considerable results. A collection of Etruscan
Etruscan society
Etruscan society is mainly known through the memorial and achievemental inscriptions on monuments of Etruscan civilization, especially tombs. This information emphasizes family data. Some contractual information is also available from various sources...
artifacts, known as the Museo Corazzi, was bought for over 30.000 guilders but pleased Reuvens because Etruscan antiquities were virtually unknown outside Italy at the time.
By far the most important deal of the expedition was the acquisition of the very large d'Anasty Collection of Egyptian antiquities. After a lengthy period of negotiations by the Dutch ambassador in Rome and Humbert with agents of d'Anasty the collection was eventually sold for roughly 115.000 guilders. It would be the largest deal in the careers of Humbert and Reuvens both, and provided the museum with an internationally appraised Egyptian collection.
Death of Reuvens
In the final years of Reuvens' life there was a severe decline in governmental support for the museum. The rebellion and seceding of Belgium in 1830 were costly matters for the king, and little to no room was found for adventurous expeditions or excavations.Reuvens died in 1835, after suffering what seems to be a severe stroke by the reports. He left behind a young museum with a scholarly renowned collection, which had grown from the Papenbroek inheritance to now include a large amount of Etruscan, Egyptian, Carthaginian, Roman, Greek and other items.
Leemans takes over
After his death Reuvens work was taken over by his student Conrad Leemans who had excavated with Reuvens and was present at his death. As described below, under Leemans the museum would finally get its own building. Prospects for continuing the growth of the collection looked bleak however, after royal interest waned and with the enormous cost of the d'Anasty deal still in mind. Leemans found a solution by using the official gazette to appeal private collectors, Dutch ambassadors and consuls for donations and aid in building the collection. The appeal was successful and objects from all over the world kept flowing in.In 1839 Leemans, now appointed director, bought some 100 vases with funds from the king. They belonged to a collection that had been excavated a decade before in Italy. Leemans published this collection in 1840, and had published the Egyptian collection the year before. The Etruscan collection was published by a colleague. Publications would continue and the next period in the history of the museum is described as "a period of consolidation after the restless pioneer years".
Before and under Reuvens
Finding an adequate building for the archaeological collection had been a matter of ongoing strife between Reuvens, the trustees of the museum and the Dutch government. When Reuvens was first appointed professor of archaeology and thereby curator of the Papenbroek collection, the antiquities were housed in a building of the botanical gardens of the university. The damp atmosphere caused serious damage to the sculptures however, and the collection had already outgrown its housing which resulted in several statues being placed outside.In 1821 the archaeological cabinet was moved to a new wing of the Museum of Natural History. Reuvens was unhappy with this location as well though, because it was much too small for the growing collection and because the windows provided far from enough light. In 1824 Reuvens was offered some more room of the Museum of Natural History, but Reuvens refused the insufficient extra space and proposed an entirely new building designed especially for the National Museum of Antiquities which would also give him a lecture hall, restoration facilities and other required rooms. Reuvens plans for this new building would prove much too expensive unfortunately.
The collection continued growing however and the room granted to it was obviously insufficient. Several other solutions were sought, including redecorating a medieval church and giving Reuvens part of a new academy building. Reuvens refused these options however, because they weren't real solutions. This led to considering a much more drastic plan: moving the museum altogether to another city. Brussels
Brussels
Brussels , officially the Brussels Region or Brussels-Capital Region , is the capital of Belgium and the de facto capital of the European Union...
, Amsterdam
Amsterdam
Amsterdam is the largest city and the capital of the Netherlands. The current position of Amsterdam as capital city of the Kingdom of the Netherlands is governed by the constitution of August 24, 1815 and its successors. Amsterdam has a population of 783,364 within city limits, an urban population...
and the Hague
The Hague
The Hague is the capital city of the province of South Holland in the Netherlands. With a population of 500,000 inhabitants , it is the third largest city of the Netherlands, after Amsterdam and Rotterdam...
were considered. Reuvens argued against all of these, using Leiden's thriving academic climate in the humanities as a main argument for keeping the collection there. Eventually Amsterdam became the prime candidate, being the capital of the Netherlands and Brussels having seceded from the kingdom along with the rest of Belgium. Before the relocation could begin however, the academic world was shocked by the unexpected death of the still young Reuvens.
Under Leemans
Reuvens' student Conrad Leemans was appointed temporary curator of the collection and was asked to compile reports on the state of the museum and Reuvens' intended publications. Leemans followed Reuvens in complaining about the poor state of the antiquities due to limited finances and a poor housing. In November 1835 a turning event occurred for the museum when the university bought an 18th-century mansion and offered to place the collection there. Leemans set to work in redecorating the mansion and moving the collection to the new building. Budgetary problems and the difficulties of transporting some of the largest pieces through the city were eventually overcome, and in August 1838 the National Museum of Antiquities finally had its official opening for the public. Reuvens' collection had grown to a real museum.See also
- Temple of TaffehTemple of TaffehThe Temple of Taffeh is an Ancient Egyptian temple which was presented to the Netherlands for its help in contributing to the historical preservation of Egyptian antiquities in the 1960's. The temple was built of sandstone between AD 1-14 on the orders of the Roman emperor Augustus. It was part of...
- Caspar ReuvensCaspar ReuvensCaspar Jacob Christiaan Reuvens was a Dutch historian and archaeologist. He was the founding director of the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden in Leiden, the world's first ever professor of archaeology , and conducted the first excavations at the Roman provincial site Forum Hadriani...
- Jean Emile HumbertJean Emile HumbertJean Emile Humbert was a Dutch lieutenant-colonel who can be credited with rediscovering ancient Carthage. As an agent for the Dutch government he procured vital parts of the collection of the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden...
- Leiden UniversityLeiden UniversityLeiden University , located in the city of Leiden, is the oldest university in the Netherlands. The university was founded in 1575 by William, Prince of Orange, leader of the Dutch Revolt in the Eighty Years' War. The royal Dutch House of Orange-Nassau and Leiden University still have a close...
- Papenbroek CollectionPapenbroek CollectionThe Papenbroek Collection is one of the largest 18th century Dutch art collections. After the death of its owner, Gerard van Papenbroek , the majority of the collection was bequeathed to Leiden University...
- Rottiers CollectionRottiers CollectionThe Rottiers Collection refers to three 19th century art collections that became an integral part of the collection of the Dutch National Museum of Antiquities. The first two collections were personal and sold by Flemish Colonel B.E.A...
- Thoms Collection
- Papyrus of QennaQennaQenna was the name of a merchant in Ancient Egypt. Qenna's tomb contained the Papyrus of Qenna, a part of the Book of the Dead.The papyrus is in the collection of the Royal Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, and is about 50 ft long. The papyrus includes spell 151 which refers to embalming....
Further reading
- Halbertsma, R. B. (2003). Scholars, Travellers, and Trade: The Pioneer Years of the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, 1818-1840, RoutledgeRoutledgeRoutledge is a British publishing house which has operated under a succession of company names and latterly as an academic imprint. Its origins may be traced back to the 19th-century London bookseller George Routledge...
.