Robert Wiedersheim was a German anatomist who is famous for publishing a list of 86 “vestigial organs” in his book 'The Structure of Man: An Index to His Past History'.

Already during his school years Wiedersheim showed an interest in botany

Botany

Botany, plant science, or plant biology is a branch of biology that involves the scientific study of plant life. Traditionally, botany also included the study of fungi, algae and viruses...

 and zoology

Zoology

Zoology |zoölogy]]), is the branch of biology that relates to the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct...

. However, he was not a good student and barely passed the final examination. His initial academic advancement was slow, until in 1876 he became an anatomist at the Albert Ludwigs University of Freiburg where he taught until 1918. He became an expert in comparative anatomy

Comparative anatomy

Comparative anatomy is the study of similarities and differences in the anatomy of organisms. It is closely related to evolutionary biology and phylogeny .-Description:...

 and published a number of relevant textbooks. He also collected early photographies and documents of scientists of his days.

In 1893 he published a list of vestigial organs. He writes, "comparative morphology points not only to the essentially similar plan of organization of the bodies of all vertebrates, ... but also to the occurrence in them of certain organs, or parts of organs, now known as 'vestigial.' “By such organs are meant those which were formerly of greater physiological significance than at present.”

He picked up on Darwin

Charles Darwin

Charles Robert Darwin FRS was an English naturalist. He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestry, and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection.He published his theory...

’s concept of “rudimentary” organs such as listed in the "The Descent of Man": the muscles of the ear, wisdom teeth, the appendix, the coccyx (tail bone), body hair, and the semilunar fold in the corner of the eye. This list was used as an argument for evolution as they were seen as evolutionary leftovers, of little use to the current organism. The list, however, contains structures which today are known to be essential, and thus represents a historical record of the physiologic understanding of the day. Creationists, on the other hand, have used the discredited examples of the list as an argument against evolution. There is no "scientific" proof, they say, of the uselessness of something: if you come across something whose use is unknown to you, that may simply show your ignorance of its utility. An example would be a "shoe horn

Shoe horn

A shoehorn is a tool that lets the user put on a shoe more easily. It does so by keeping the shoe open and by providing a smooth surface for the foot and the heel to move, without crushing the shoe's counter , in this way acting as a first class lever.Originally,...

" - a simple piece of metal that looks like a spoon with the part that should hold food inside out. If one assumed that the shoehorn was a spoon, it would of course appear useless.

Some biologists have asserted that it is impossible to identify useless organs.

Many vestigial organs have now been discovered by medical science to have fundamental uses. Many others simply act as "backup," being able to mimic or complement the function of other organs.

Although Wiedersheim originally published a list of 86, later interpretations enlarged his list to 180 vestiges. The zoologist Horatio Newman said in a written statement read into evidence in the Scopes Trial

Scopes Trial

The Scopes Trial—formally known as The State of Tennessee v. John Thomas Scopes and informally known as the Scopes Monkey Trial—was a landmark American legal case in 1925 in which high school science teacher, John Scopes, was accused of violating Tennessee's Butler Act which made it unlawful to...

 that "There are, according to Wiedersheim, no less than 180 vestigial structures in the human body, sufficient to make of a man a veritable walking museum of antiquities."

It is important to note that a vestige is not necessarily a completely useless organ. Although defined as "useless" in popular media, a vestige as defined in evolutionary biology may still have some use, but the use has since diminished. This definition is consistent with Wiedersheim, who said that vestigial organs are "wholly or in part functionless" (Wiedersheim 1893, p. 200) and have "lost their original physiological significance" (p. 205).

Structures included in Wiedersheim’s list of 86 vestigial organs

• Os coccygis
  Coccyx
  The coccyx , commonly referred to as the tailbone, is the final segment of the vertebral column. Comprising three to five separate or fused vertebrae below the sacrum, it is attached to the sacrum by a fibrocartilaginous joint, the sacrococcygeal symphysis, which permits limited movement between...
  
  . Cauda humana.

• Superfluous embryonic notochord
  Notochord
  The notochord is a flexible, rod-shaped body found in embryos of all chordates. It is composed of cells derived from the mesoderm and defines the primitive axis of the embryo. In some chordates, it persists throughout life as the main axial support of the body, while in most vertebrates it becomes...
  
   and associated somites.

• Embryonic cervical
  Cervical
  In anatomy, cervical is an adjective that has two meanings:# of or pertaining to any neck.# of or pertaining to the female cervix: i.e., the neck of the uterus.*Commonly used medical phrases involving the neck are**cervical collar...
  
  , lumbar
  Lumbar
  In tetrapod anatomy, lumbar is an adjective that means of or pertaining to the abdominal segment of the torso, between the diaphragm and the sacrum ...
  
  , and sacral
  Sacrum
  In vertebrate anatomy the sacrum is a large, triangular bone at the base of the spine and at the upper and back part of the pelvic cavity, where it is inserted like a wedge between the two hip bones. Its upper part connects with the last lumbar vertebra, and bottom part with the coccyx...
  
   ribs
  Human rib cage
  -See also:*Terms for bones*Terms for anatomical location*Articulation of head of rib-References:* Clinically Oriented Anatomy, 4th ed. Keith L. Moore and Robert F. Dalley. pp. 62–64...
  
  .

• The thirteenth rib
  Human rib cage
  -See also:*Terms for bones*Terms for anatomical location*Articulation of head of rib-References:* Clinically Oriented Anatomy, 4th ed. Keith L. Moore and Robert F. Dalley. pp. 62–64...
  
   of the adult.

• The seventh cervical rib
  Human rib cage
  -See also:*Terms for bones*Terms for anatomical location*Articulation of head of rib-References:* Clinically Oriented Anatomy, 4th ed. Keith L. Moore and Robert F. Dalley. pp. 62–64...
  
   in the adult.

• The interarticular cartilage of the sterno-clavicular joint
  Sternoclavicular articulation
  The sternoclavicular articulation is a synovial double-plane joint composed of two portions separated by an articular disc. The parts entering into its formation are the sternal end of the clavicle, the upper and lateral part of the manubrium sterni , and the cartilage of the first rib, visible...
  
   (probable vestige of the episternal apparatus).

• Ossa supra-sternalia.

• Certain centres of ossification in the manubrium sterni
  Manubrium
  The manubrium or manubrium sterni is the broad, upper part of the sternum. Located ventrally with a quadrangular shape, wider superiorly and narrower inferiorly, it articulates with the clavicles and the first two ribs.-Borders:The superior border is the thickest and presents at its center the...
  
  .

• The branchial clefts (for the most part) and branchial ridges.

• Processus styloideus ossis temporis, and the ligamentum stylo-hyoideum.

• Anterior cornua of the hyoid, for the greater part.

• Foramen caecum
  Foramen cecum (tongue)
  The dorsum of the tongue is convex and marked by a median sulcus, which divides it into symmetrical halves; this sulcus ends behind, about 2.5 cm from the root of the organ, in a depression, the foramen cecum , from which a shallow groove, the sulcus terminalis, runs lateral and anterior on either...
  
   of the tongue.

• Processus gracilis of the malleus
  Malleus
  The malleus or hammer is a hammer-shaped small bone or ossicle of the middle ear which connects with the incus and is attached to the inner surface of the eardrum...
  
  .

• Post-frontal bone (?)

• Ossa interparietalia (and ? prseinterparietalia).

• Processus paramastoideus of exoccipital.

• Torus occipitalis.

• Processus frontalis of the temporal.

• Processus coracoideus [meta- and epi-coracoid bones].

• Os centrale carpi.

• Processus supracondyloideus humeri.

• Trochanter tertius femoris.

• The phalanges
  Phalanges of the foot
  The Olphalanges of the foot are the bones in the toes. They correspond, in number and general arrangement, with those of the hand; there are two in the big toe, and three in each of the other toes...
  
   of the fifth toe, and less conspicuously of the third and fourth toes.

• Muscles of the pinna
  Pinna
  In animal anatomy, the pinna is the visible part of the ear that resides outside of the head ....
  
   and the Musculus occipitalis. L

• M. transversus nuchae. L. -- http://www.anatomyatlases.org/AnatomicVariants/MuscularSystem/Text/O/08Occipitalis.shtml

• Facial muscles transformed into tendinous expansions.

• Mm. plantaris
  Plantaris muscle
  Plantaris is a vestigial structure and one of the superficial muscles of the posterior crural compartment of the leg.It is innervated by the tibial nerve ....
  
   and palmaris longus, when completely tendinous.

• M. ischio femoralis.

• The caudal muscles.

• M. epitrochleo-anconseus. -

• M. latissimo-condyloideus.

• M. transversus thoracis (triangularis sterni).

• M. palmaris brevis.

• The transition bundles between the trapezius and the sterno- cleido-mastoideus.

• M. levator claviculae
  Levator claviculae muscle
  In human anatomy, the levator claviculae is a very rare accessory and vestigial skeletal muscle in the posterior triangle of the neck. It originates on the transverse processes of the upper cervical vertebrae and is inserted in the lateral half of the clavicle...
  
  .

• M. rectus thoracis.

• M. ere master.

• The primitive hairy covering or lanugo
  Lanugo
  Lanugo is fine, downy hair as a type of fur. It is often found in teratomas .-Fetal development:Lanugo grows on fetuses as a normal part of gestation, but is usually shed and replaced by vellus hair at about 33 to 36 weeks of gestational age...
  
  .

• Vestiges of vibrissae
  Vibrissae
  Vibrissae , or whiskers, are specialized hairs usually employed for tactile sensation. The term may also refer to the thick hairs found inside human nostrils, but these have no sensorial function and only operate as an airborne particulate barrier...
  
  

• The vertex coccygeus, the foveola and glabella coccygea.

• Certain vortices of hair on the breast.

• Nipples in men.

• Supernumerary mammary glands in women. http://www.anatomyatlases.org/AnatomicVariants/OrganSystem/Text/MammaryGland.shtml

• Alleged vestiges of mammary pouches [?]

• Supernumerary olfactory ridges.

• Jacobson's organ
  Vomeronasal organ
  The vomeronasal organ , or Jacobson's organ, is an auxiliary olfactory sense organ that is found in many animals. It was discovered by Frederik Ruysch and later by Ludwig Jacobson in 1813....
  
  , and ductus naso-palatinus.

• Papilla palatina and foliata.

• Plica semilunaris of the eye.

• Vasa hyaloidse (Cloquet's canal) of the embryo the choroidal fissure.

• Lachrymal glands
  Lacrimal gland
  The lacrimal glands are paired almond-shaped glands, one for each eye, that secrete the aqueous layer of the tear film. They are situated in the upper, outer portion of each orbit, in the lacrimal fossa of the orbit formed by the frontal bone. Inflammation of the lacrimal glands is called...
  
  , in part.

• The epicanthus.

• M. orbitalis.

• Certain varieties of the pinna of the ear, i.e. Darwin's tubercle
  Darwin's tubercle
  Darwin's tubercle is a congenital ear condition which often presents as a thickening on the helix at the junction of the upper and middle thirds. The feature is present in approximately 10.4% of the population...
  
  .

• The filum terminale
  Filum terminale
  The filum terminale , is a delicate strand of fibrous tissue, about 20 cm. in length, proceeding downward from the apex of the conus medullaris. It gives longitudinal support to the spinal cord and consists of two parts:...
  
   of the spinal cord
  Spinal cord
  The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue and support cells that extends from the brain . The brain and spinal cord together make up the central nervous system...
  
  .

• Glandula pinealis
  Pineal gland
  The pineal gland is a small endocrine gland in the vertebrate brain. It produces the serotonin derivative melatonin, a hormone that affects the modulation of wake/sleep patterns and seasonal functions...
  
   and parietal organ.

• The parieto-occipital fissure of the brain [doubtful].

• The obex, ponticulus, ligula, taeniae medullares, and velum medullare anterius and posterius, of the brain.

• The hypophysis cerebri (pituitary body)
  Pituitary gland
  In vertebrate anatomy the pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing 0.5 g , in humans. It is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and rests in a small, bony cavity covered by a dural fold...
  
  .

• The dorsal roots and ganglia of the hypoglossus nerve
  Hypoglossal nerve
  The hypoglossal nerve is the twelfth cranial nerve , leading to the tongue. The nerve arises from the hypoglossal nucleus and emerges from the medulla oblongata in the preolivary sulcus separating the olive and the pyramid. It then passes through the hypoglossal canal...
  
  .

• The rami recurrentes of certain cranial nerves.

• Certain elements of the brachial and lumbo-sacral plexuses.

• The coccygeal nerve
  Coccygeal nerve
  -Structure:The coccygeal nerve is the 31st spinal nerve. It arises from the sacral plexus, and its ventral ramus helps form the coccygeal plexus. It does not divide into a medial and lateral branch...
  
  .

• The glandula coccygea.

• Palatal ridges.

• The sublingua.

• The formation of rudimentary dental papillae before the sinking of the dental ridge.

• The Wisdom teeth

• The occurrence of a third premolar
  Premolar
  The premolar teeth or bicuspids are transitional teeth located between the canine and molar teeth. In humans, there are two premolars per quadrant, making eight premolars total in the mouth. They have at least two cusps. Premolars can be considered as a 'transitional tooth' during chewing, or...
  
   (reversionary).

• The occurrence of a fourth molar
  Molar (tooth)
  Molars are the rearmost and most complicated kind of tooth in most mammals. In many mammals they grind food; hence the Latin name mola, "millstone"....
  
   (reversionary).

• The vestiges of a third dentition.

• The ciliated epithelium of the embryonic oesophagus.

• Bursa sub- and prehyoidea (ductus thyroglossus).

• Musculi broncho-oesophagei.

• The appendix vermiformis
  Vermiform appendix
  The appendix is a blind-ended tube connected to the cecum , from which it develops embryologically. The cecum is a pouchlike structure of the colon...
  
  .

• Ventricle of the larynx
  Ventricle of the larynx
  The ventricle of the larynx is a fusiform fossa, situated between the ventricular and vocal folds on either side, and extending nearly their entire length....
  
   (Morgagni's pouch).

• Lobus subpericardiacus of the lung
  Lung
  The lung is the essential respiration organ in many air-breathing animals, including most tetrapods, a few fish and a few snails. In mammals and the more complex life forms, the two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of the heart...
  
   (reversionary).

• Certain Valves of the vein
  Vein
  In the circulatory system, veins are blood vessels that carry blood towards the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the heart; exceptions are the pulmonary and umbilical veins, both of which carry oxygenated blood to the heart...
  
  s.

• Certain structures of a vestigial nature in the heart
  Human heart
  The human heart is a muscular organ that provides a continuous blood circulation through the cardiac cycle and is one of the most vital organs in the human body...
  
  .

• Arteria sacralis media.

• Arteria ischiadica.

• Superficial plantar arterial arch of the foot.

• The vena cava superior sinistra.

• Venae cardinales posteriores, and ductus Cuvieri.

• Vestiges (in the female) of the mesonephric system, and (in the male) of the Mullerian ducts.

• Conus inguinalis, and ligamentum inguinale.

• The area scroti.