Robert of Jumièges
Encyclopedia
Robert of Jumièges was the first Norman
Archbishop of Canterbury
. He had previously served as prior
of the Abbey of St Ouen
at Rouen
in France, before becoming abbot
of Jumièges Abbey
, near Rouen, in 1037. He was a good friend and advisor to the king of England
, Edward the Confessor
, who appointed him Bishop of London
in 1044, and then archbishop in 1051. Robert's time as archbishop lasted only about eighteen months. He had already come into conflict with the powerful Earl Godwin of Wessex, and while archbishop made attempts to recover lands lost to Godwin and his family. He also refused to consecrate Spearhafoc
, Edward's choice to succeed Robert as Bishop of London. The rift between Robert and Godwin culminated in Robert's deposition and exile in 1052.
A Norman medieval chronicler, claimed that Robert travelled to Normandy in 1051 or 1052 and told Duke William of Normandy
, the future William the Conqueror, that Edward wished for him to become his heir. The exact timing of Robert's trip, and whether he actually made it, have been the subject of debate among historians. The archbishop died in exile at Jumièges sometime between 1052 and 1055. Robert commissioned significant building work at Jumièges and was probably involved in the first Romanesque building in England, the church built in Westminster for Edward the Confessor, now known as Westminster Abbey
. Robert's treatment by the English was used by William the Conqueror as one of the justifications for his invasion of England.
, around 940, and its ties with the ducal family were close and had a role in ducal government and church reform. Robert's alternate surname "Champart" or "Chambert" probably derived from champart
, a term for the part of a crop paid as rent to a landlord. Besides evidence that the preceding abbot at Jumièges was a relative, his origin and family background are otherwise unknown. While abbot, Robert began construction of the abbey church, in the new Romanesque
style.
Robert became friendly with Edward the Confessor, a claimant to the English throne, while Edward was living in exile in Normandy, probably in the decade of the 1030s. Edward was the son of Æthelred the Unready, king of England, who had been replaced by Cnut the Great in 1016. Cnut subsequently married Æthelred's widow Emma of Normandy
, Edward's mother, and had a son with her, Harthacanute
. For their own safety, Edward and his brother Alfred were sent to Emma's relatives in Normandy. After Cnut's death in 1035, Harold Harefoot
, his elder son by his first wife, acceded to the English throne. Following Harald's death in 1040, Harthacanute succeeded him for a short time, but as neither Harald nor Harthacanute left offspring, the throne was offered to Edward on Harthacanute's death in 1042. There is some evidence that Edward spent some of his time in exile around Jumièges, as after becoming king he gave gifts to the abbey.
Robert accompanied Edward the Confessor on Edward's recall to England in 1042 to become king following Harthacanute's death. It was due to Edward that in August 1044 Robert was appointed Bishop of London, one of the first episcopal vacancies which occurred in Edward's reign. Robert remained close to the king and was the leader of the party opposed to Earl Godwin, Earl of Wessex. Godwin, for his part, was attempting to expand the influence of his family, which had already acquired much land. His daughter was Edward's queen, and two of his sons were elevated to earldoms. The Life of Saint Edward
, a hagiographical
work on King Edward's life, claimed that Robert "was always the most powerful confidential adviser of the king". Robert seems to have favoured closer relations with Normandy, and its duke. Edward himself had grown up in the duchy, and spent 25 years in exile there before his return to England. He brought many Normans with him to England, and seems to have spent much time in their company.
When Archbishop Edsige of Canterbury died in October 1050, the post remained vacant for five months. The cathedral chapter
elected Æthelric, a kinsman of Godwin and a monk at Canterbury, but were overruled when Edward appointed Robert Archbishop of Canterbury the following year. Godwin was attempting to exercise his power of patronage over the archbishopric, but the king's appointment signaled that the king was willing to contest with the earl over the traditional royal rights at Canterbury. Although the monks of Canterbury opposed it, the king's appointment stood. Robert went to Rome to receive his pallium
and returned to England where he was ceremonially enthroned at Canterbury on 29 June 1051. Some Norman chroniclers state that he visited Normandy on this trip and informed Duke William, the future William the Conqueror, that he was the childless King Edward's heir. According to these chroniclers, the decision to make William the heir had been decided at the same lenten royal council in 1051 that had declared Robert archbishop.
After returning from Rome, Robert refused to consecrate Spearhafoc, the Abbot of Abingdon
and the king's goldsmith, as his successor to the bishopric of London, claiming that Pope Leo IX
had forbidden the consecration. Almost certainly the grounds were simony, the purchase of ecclesiastical office, as Leo had recently issued proclamations against the practice. In refusing to consecrate Spearhafoc, Robert may have been following his own interests against the wishes of both the king and Godwin, as he had his own candidate, a Norman, in mind. In the end Robert's favoured candidate, William the Norman, was consecrated instead of Spearhafoc. Robert also discovered that some lands belonging to Canterbury had fallen into Godwin's hands, but his efforts to recover them through the shire courts were unsuccessful. Canterbury had lost control of some revenues from the shire of Kent to Godwin during Edsige's tenure as archbishop, which Robert unsuccessfully attempted to reclaim. These disputes over the estates and revenues of the archbishopric contributed to the friction between Robert and Godwin, which had begun with Robert's election. Robert's election had disrupted Godwin's patronage powers in Canterbury, and now Robert's efforts to recover lands Godwin had seized from Canterbury challenged the earl's economic rights. Events came to a head at a council held at Gloucester
in September 1051, when Robert accused Earl Godwin of plotting to kill King Edward. Godwin and his family were exiled; afterwards Robert claimed the office of sheriff of Kent
, probably on the strength of Eadsige, his predecessor as Archbishop, having held the office.
Although Robert refused to consecrate Spearhafoc, there is little evidence that he was interested in the growing movement towards Church reform being promulgated by the papacy. Pope Leo IX was beginning a reform movement later known as the Gregorian Reform
, initially focused on improving the clergy and prohibiting simony. In 1049 Leo IX declared that he would take more interest in English church matters and would investigate episcopal candidates more strictly before confirming them. It may have been partly to appease Leo that Edward appointed Robert instead of Æthelric, hoping to signal to the papacy that the English crown was not totally opposed to the growing reform movement. It was against this backdrop that Robert refused to consecrate Spearhafoc, although there is no other evidence that Robert embraced the reform position, and his claim that the pope forbade the consecration may have had more to do with finding an easy excuse than any true desire for reform. There are also some indications that Spearhafoc was allied to Godwin, and his appointment was meant as a quid pro quo for the non-appointment of Æthelric. If true, Robert's refusal to consecrate Spearhafoc would have contributed to the growing rift between the archbishop and the earl.
, Godwin's daughter, but Edward refused and instead she was sent to a nunnery
. However, the Life is a hagiography, written soon after Edward's death to show Edward as a saint. Thus it stresses that Edward voluntarily remained celibate
, something unlikely to have been true and not corroborated by any other source. Modern historians have felt it more likely that Edward, at Robert's urging, wished to divorce Edith and remarry in order to have children to succeed him on the English throne, although it is possible that he merely wished to be rid of her, without necessarily wanting a divorce.
During Godwin's exile, Robert is said to have been sent by the king on an errand to Duke William of Normandy
. The reason for the embassy is uncertain. William of Jumièges
says that Robert went to tell Duke William that Edward wished William to be his heir. The medieval writer William of Poitiers
gives the same reason, but also adds that Robert took with him as hostages Godwin's son Wulfnoth
and grandson Hakon (son of Sweyn
). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
is silent on the visit however, so it is uncertain whether Robert visited Normandy or not, or why he did so. The entire history of the various missions which Robert is alleged to have made is confused, and complicated by propaganda claims made by Norman chroniclers after the Norman Conquest in 1066, leaving it unclear if Robert visited Normandy on his way to receive his pallium or after Godwin was in exile, or if he went twice or not at all.
, and gathered a fleet and mercenaries in order to force the king to allow his return. In the summer of 1052, Godwin returned to England and was met by his sons, who had invaded from Ireland. By September, they were advancing on London, where negotiations between the king and the earl were conducted with the help of Stigand
, the Bishop of Winchester
. When it became apparent that Godwin would be returning, Robert quickly left England with Bishop Ulf of Dorcester
and Bishop William of London, probably once again taking Wulfnoth and Hakon with him as hostages, whether with the permission of King Edward or not. Robert was declared an outlaw and deposed from his archbishopric on 14 September 1052 at a royal council, mainly because the returning Godwin felt that Robert, along with a number of other Normans, had been the driving force behind his exile. Robert journeyed to Rome to complain to the pope about his own exile, where Leo IX and successive popes condemned Stigand, whom Edward had appointed to Canterbury. Robert's personal property was divided between Earl Godwin, Harold Godwinson, and the queen, who had returned to court.
Robert died at Jumièges, but the date of his death is unclear. Various dates are given, with Ian Walker, the biographer of Harold arguing for between 1053 and 1055, but H. E. J. Cowdrey, who wrote Robert's Oxford Dictionary of National Biography entry, says on 26 May in either 1052 or 1055. H. R. Loyn
, another modern historian, argues that it is likely that he died in 1053.
Robert's treatment was used by William the Conqueror as one of the justifications for his invasion of England, the other being that Edward had named William his heir. Ian Walker, author of the most recent scholarly biography of Harold Godwinson
, suggests that it was Robert, while in exile after the return of Godwin, who testified that King Edward had nominated Duke William to be Edward's heir. However, this view is contradicted by David Douglas, a historian and biographer of William the Conqueror, who believes that Robert merely relayed Edward's decision, probably while Robert was on his way to Rome to receive his pallium. Several medieval chroniclers, including the author of the Life of Saint Edward, felt that the blame for Edward and Godwin's conflict in 1051–1052 lay squarely with Robert; modern historians tend to see Robert as an ambitious man, with little political skill.
only recently given to the monks of Winchester Cathedral
by Emma of Normandy. Though the Winchester head remained in place, another one appeared at Jumièges; he "must have clandestinely removed the head, or at least the greater part of it, and left his monks to venerate the empty or nearly empty capsa". Two of the four most important surviving late Anglo-Saxon
illuminated manuscript
s went the same way, thus probably preventing their destruction in a series of fires that devastated the major English libraries. One is the so-called Missal of Robert of Jumièges, actually a sacramentary
with thirteen surviving full-page miniatures, which bears an inscription apparently in Robert's own hand recording its donation to Jumièges when he was Bishop of London, and the other the so-called Benedictional of Archbishop Robert, actually a pontifical
with three remaining full-page miniatures and other decoration (respectively Rouen, Bibliothèque Municipale, Manuscripts Y.6 and Y.7). The latter may well have been commissioned by Æthelgar, Robert's predecessor as Archbishop in 988–90, although it is possible the "Archbishop Robert" of the traditional name is Emma's brother Robert, Archbishop of Rouen from 990 to 1037. These masterpieces of the Winchester style were the most elaborately decorated Anglo-Saxon manuscripts known to have reached Normandy, either before or after the Conquest, and influenced the much less-developed local style, though this remained very largely restricted to initials.
Before he came to England, Robert had begun the construction of a new abbey church at Jumièges, in the new Romanesque style which was then becoming popular, and introduced to Normandy the two-towered western facade
from the Rhineland
. On his return to Normandy he continued to build there, and the abbey church was not finished until 1067. Although the choir has been torn down, the towers, nave
and transept
s have survived. Robert probably influenced Edward the Confessor's rebuilding of the church at Westminster Abbey, the first known building in the Romanesque style in England, which is so described by William of Malmesbury
. Edward's work began in about 1050 and was completed just before his death in 1065. The recorded name of one of the senior masons, "Teinfrith the churchwright" indicates foreign origins, and Robert may have arranged for Norman masons to be brought over, though other names are English. It is possible that Westminster influenced the building at Jumièges, as the arcade there closely resembles Westminster's arcade, both of them in a style that never became common in Normandy. The Early Romanesque style of both was to be superseded after the Conquest by the Anglo-Norman High Romanesque style pioneered in Canterbury Cathedral
and St. Etienne, Caen
by Lanfranc
.
Normans
The Normans were the people who gave their name to Normandy, a region in northern France. They were descended from Norse Viking conquerors of the territory and the native population of Frankish and Gallo-Roman stock...
Archbishop of Canterbury
Archbishop of Canterbury
The Archbishop of Canterbury is the senior bishop and principal leader of the Church of England, the symbolic head of the worldwide Anglican Communion, and the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury. In his role as head of the Anglican Communion, the archbishop leads the third largest group...
. He had previously served as prior
Prior
Prior is an ecclesiastical title, derived from the Latin adjective for 'earlier, first', with several notable uses.-Monastic superiors:A Prior is a monastic superior, usually lower in rank than an Abbot. In the Rule of St...
of the Abbey of St Ouen
Church of St. Ouen, Rouen
The Church of St. Ouen is a large Gothic Roman Catholic church in Rouen, northern France, famous for both its architecture and its large, unaltered Cavaillé-Coll organ, which Charles-Marie Widor described as "a Michelangelo of an organ"...
at Rouen
Rouen
Rouen , in northern France on the River Seine, is the capital of the Haute-Normandie region and the historic capital city of Normandy. Once one of the largest and most prosperous cities of medieval Europe , it was the seat of the Exchequer of Normandy in the Middle Ages...
in France, before becoming abbot
Abbot
The word abbot, meaning father, is a title given to the head of a monastery in various traditions, including Christianity. The office may also be given as an honorary title to a clergyman who is not actually the head of a monastery...
of Jumièges Abbey
Jumièges Abbey
Jumièges Abbey was a Benedictine monastery, situated in the commune of Jumièges in the Seine-Maritime département, in Normandy, France.-History:...
, near Rouen, in 1037. He was a good friend and advisor to the king of England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
, Edward the Confessor
Edward the Confessor
Edward the Confessor also known as St. Edward the Confessor , son of Æthelred the Unready and Emma of Normandy, was one of the last Anglo-Saxon kings of England and is usually regarded as the last king of the House of Wessex, ruling from 1042 to 1066....
, who appointed him Bishop of London
Bishop of London
The Bishop of London is the ordinary of the Church of England Diocese of London in the Province of Canterbury.The diocese covers 458 km² of 17 boroughs of Greater London north of the River Thames and a small part of the County of Surrey...
in 1044, and then archbishop in 1051. Robert's time as archbishop lasted only about eighteen months. He had already come into conflict with the powerful Earl Godwin of Wessex, and while archbishop made attempts to recover lands lost to Godwin and his family. He also refused to consecrate Spearhafoc
Spearhafoc
Spearhafoc, a name meaning "sparrowhawk" in Old English , was an eleventh century Anglo-Saxon artist and Benedictine monk, whose artistic talent was apparently the cause of his rapid elevation to Abbot of Abingdon in 1047–48 and Bishop-Elect of London in 1051...
, Edward's choice to succeed Robert as Bishop of London. The rift between Robert and Godwin culminated in Robert's deposition and exile in 1052.
A Norman medieval chronicler, claimed that Robert travelled to Normandy in 1051 or 1052 and told Duke William of Normandy
William I of England
William I , also known as William the Conqueror , was the first Norman King of England from Christmas 1066 until his death. He was also Duke of Normandy from 3 July 1035 until his death, under the name William II...
, the future William the Conqueror, that Edward wished for him to become his heir. The exact timing of Robert's trip, and whether he actually made it, have been the subject of debate among historians. The archbishop died in exile at Jumièges sometime between 1052 and 1055. Robert commissioned significant building work at Jumièges and was probably involved in the first Romanesque building in England, the church built in Westminster for Edward the Confessor, now known as Westminster Abbey
Westminster Abbey
The Collegiate Church of St Peter at Westminster, popularly known as Westminster Abbey, is a large, mainly Gothic church, in the City of Westminster, London, United Kingdom, located just to the west of the Palace of Westminster. It is the traditional place of coronation and burial site for English,...
. Robert's treatment by the English was used by William the Conqueror as one of the justifications for his invasion of England.
Background and life in Normandy
Robert was prior of the church of St Ouen at Rouen before he became abbot of the important Jumièges Abbey in 1037. Jumièges had been refounded under William Longsword, Duke of NormandyDuke of Normandy
The Duke of Normandy is the title of the reigning monarch of the British Crown Dependancies of the Bailiwick of Guernsey and the Bailiwick of Jersey. The title traces its roots to the Duchy of Normandy . Whether the reigning sovereign is a male or female, they are always titled as the "Duke of...
, around 940, and its ties with the ducal family were close and had a role in ducal government and church reform. Robert's alternate surname "Champart" or "Chambert" probably derived from champart
Champart
Champart was a tax in Medieval France levied by landowners on tenants. Paid as a share of the harvest, the amount due varied between one sixth and one twelfth, and typically one eighth of the cereal crop....
, a term for the part of a crop paid as rent to a landlord. Besides evidence that the preceding abbot at Jumièges was a relative, his origin and family background are otherwise unknown. While abbot, Robert began construction of the abbey church, in the new Romanesque
Romanesque architecture
Romanesque architecture is an architectural style of Medieval Europe characterised by semi-circular arches. There is no consensus for the beginning date of the Romanesque architecture, with proposals ranging from the 6th to the 10th century. It developed in the 12th century into the Gothic style,...
style.
Robert became friendly with Edward the Confessor, a claimant to the English throne, while Edward was living in exile in Normandy, probably in the decade of the 1030s. Edward was the son of Æthelred the Unready, king of England, who had been replaced by Cnut the Great in 1016. Cnut subsequently married Æthelred's widow Emma of Normandy
Emma of Normandy
Emma , was a daughter of Richard the Fearless, Duke of Normandy, by his second wife Gunnora. She was Queen consort of England twice, by successive marriages: first as second wife to Æthelred the Unready of England ; and then second wife to Cnut the Great of Denmark...
, Edward's mother, and had a son with her, Harthacanute
Harthacanute
Harthacnut was King of Denmark from 1035 to 1042 and King of England from 1040 to 1042.He was the son of King Cnut the Great, who ruled Denmark, Norway, and England, and Emma of Normandy. When Cnut died in 1035, Harthacnut struggled to retain his father's possessions...
. For their own safety, Edward and his brother Alfred were sent to Emma's relatives in Normandy. After Cnut's death in 1035, Harold Harefoot
Harold Harefoot
Harold Harefoot was King of England from 1037 to 1040. His cognomen "Harefoot" referred to his speed, and the skill of his huntsmanship. He was the son of Cnut the Great, king of England, Denmark, and Norway by Ælfgifu of Northampton...
, his elder son by his first wife, acceded to the English throne. Following Harald's death in 1040, Harthacanute succeeded him for a short time, but as neither Harald nor Harthacanute left offspring, the throne was offered to Edward on Harthacanute's death in 1042. There is some evidence that Edward spent some of his time in exile around Jumièges, as after becoming king he gave gifts to the abbey.
Bishop and Archbishop
Vita Ædwardi Regis
The Vita Ædwardi Regis qui apud Westmonasterium Requiescit or simply Vita Ædwardi Regis is a historical work completed by an anonymous author c. 1067 and commissioned by Queen Edith, wife of King Edward the Confessor. It survives in one manuscript, dated c. 1100, now in the British Library...
, a hagiographical
Hagiography
Hagiography is the study of saints.From the Greek and , it refers literally to writings on the subject of such holy people, and specifically to the biographies of saints and ecclesiastical leaders. The term hagiology, the study of hagiography, is also current in English, though less common...
work on King Edward's life, claimed that Robert "was always the most powerful confidential adviser of the king". Robert seems to have favoured closer relations with Normandy, and its duke. Edward himself had grown up in the duchy, and spent 25 years in exile there before his return to England. He brought many Normans with him to England, and seems to have spent much time in their company.
When Archbishop Edsige of Canterbury died in October 1050, the post remained vacant for five months. The cathedral chapter
Cathedral chapter
In accordance with canon law, a cathedral chapter is a college of clerics formed to advise a bishop and, in the case of a vacancy of the episcopal see in some countries, to govern the diocese in his stead. These councils are made up of canons and dignitaries; in the Roman Catholic church their...
elected Æthelric, a kinsman of Godwin and a monk at Canterbury, but were overruled when Edward appointed Robert Archbishop of Canterbury the following year. Godwin was attempting to exercise his power of patronage over the archbishopric, but the king's appointment signaled that the king was willing to contest with the earl over the traditional royal rights at Canterbury. Although the monks of Canterbury opposed it, the king's appointment stood. Robert went to Rome to receive his pallium
Pallium
The pallium is an ecclesiastical vestment in the Roman Catholic Church, originally peculiar to the Pope, but for many centuries bestowed by him on metropolitans and primates as a symbol of the jurisdiction delegated to them by the Holy See. In that context it has always remained unambiguously...
and returned to England where he was ceremonially enthroned at Canterbury on 29 June 1051. Some Norman chroniclers state that he visited Normandy on this trip and informed Duke William, the future William the Conqueror, that he was the childless King Edward's heir. According to these chroniclers, the decision to make William the heir had been decided at the same lenten royal council in 1051 that had declared Robert archbishop.
After returning from Rome, Robert refused to consecrate Spearhafoc, the Abbot of Abingdon
Abingdon Abbey
Abingdon Abbey was a Benedictine monastery also known as St Mary's Abbey located in Abingdon, historically in the county of Berkshire but now in Oxfordshire, England.-History:...
and the king's goldsmith, as his successor to the bishopric of London, claiming that Pope Leo IX
Pope Leo IX
Pope Saint Leo IX , born Bruno of Eguisheim-Dagsburg, was Pope from February 12, 1049 to his death. He was a German aristocrat and as well as being Pope was a powerful secular ruler of central Italy. He is regarded as a saint by the Roman Catholic Church, with the feast day of April 19...
had forbidden the consecration. Almost certainly the grounds were simony, the purchase of ecclesiastical office, as Leo had recently issued proclamations against the practice. In refusing to consecrate Spearhafoc, Robert may have been following his own interests against the wishes of both the king and Godwin, as he had his own candidate, a Norman, in mind. In the end Robert's favoured candidate, William the Norman, was consecrated instead of Spearhafoc. Robert also discovered that some lands belonging to Canterbury had fallen into Godwin's hands, but his efforts to recover them through the shire courts were unsuccessful. Canterbury had lost control of some revenues from the shire of Kent to Godwin during Edsige's tenure as archbishop, which Robert unsuccessfully attempted to reclaim. These disputes over the estates and revenues of the archbishopric contributed to the friction between Robert and Godwin, which had begun with Robert's election. Robert's election had disrupted Godwin's patronage powers in Canterbury, and now Robert's efforts to recover lands Godwin had seized from Canterbury challenged the earl's economic rights. Events came to a head at a council held at Gloucester
Gloucester
Gloucester is a city, district and county town of Gloucestershire in the South West region of England. Gloucester lies close to the Welsh border, and on the River Severn, approximately north-east of Bristol, and south-southwest of Birmingham....
in September 1051, when Robert accused Earl Godwin of plotting to kill King Edward. Godwin and his family were exiled; afterwards Robert claimed the office of sheriff of Kent
Kent
Kent is a county in southeast England, and is one of the home counties. It borders East Sussex, Surrey and Greater London and has a defined boundary with Essex in the middle of the Thames Estuary. The ceremonial county boundaries of Kent include the shire county of Kent and the unitary borough of...
, probably on the strength of Eadsige, his predecessor as Archbishop, having held the office.
Although Robert refused to consecrate Spearhafoc, there is little evidence that he was interested in the growing movement towards Church reform being promulgated by the papacy. Pope Leo IX was beginning a reform movement later known as the Gregorian Reform
Gregorian Reform
The Gregorian Reforms were a series of reforms initiated by Pope Gregory VII and the circle he formed in the papal curia, circa 1050–80, which dealt with the moral integrity and independence of the clergy...
, initially focused on improving the clergy and prohibiting simony. In 1049 Leo IX declared that he would take more interest in English church matters and would investigate episcopal candidates more strictly before confirming them. It may have been partly to appease Leo that Edward appointed Robert instead of Æthelric, hoping to signal to the papacy that the English crown was not totally opposed to the growing reform movement. It was against this backdrop that Robert refused to consecrate Spearhafoc, although there is no other evidence that Robert embraced the reform position, and his claim that the pope forbade the consecration may have had more to do with finding an easy excuse than any true desire for reform. There are also some indications that Spearhafoc was allied to Godwin, and his appointment was meant as a quid pro quo for the non-appointment of Æthelric. If true, Robert's refusal to consecrate Spearhafoc would have contributed to the growing rift between the archbishop and the earl.
Royal advisor
The Life of Saint Edward claims that while Godwin was in exile Robert tried to persuade King Edward to divorce EdithEdith of Wessex
Edith of Wessex married King Edward the Confessor of England on 23 January 1045. Unlike most wives of kings of England in the tenth and eleventh centuries, she was crowned queen, but the marriage produced no children...
, Godwin's daughter, but Edward refused and instead she was sent to a nunnery
Abbey
An abbey is a Catholic monastery or convent, under the authority of an Abbot or an Abbess, who serves as the spiritual father or mother of the community.The term can also refer to an establishment which has long ceased to function as an abbey,...
. However, the Life is a hagiography, written soon after Edward's death to show Edward as a saint. Thus it stresses that Edward voluntarily remained celibate
Celibacy
Celibacy is a personal commitment to avoiding sexual relations, in particular a vow from marriage. Typically celibacy involves avoiding all romantic relationships of any kind. An individual may choose celibacy for religious reasons, such as is the case for priests in some religions, for reasons of...
, something unlikely to have been true and not corroborated by any other source. Modern historians have felt it more likely that Edward, at Robert's urging, wished to divorce Edith and remarry in order to have children to succeed him on the English throne, although it is possible that he merely wished to be rid of her, without necessarily wanting a divorce.
During Godwin's exile, Robert is said to have been sent by the king on an errand to Duke William of Normandy
William I of England
William I , also known as William the Conqueror , was the first Norman King of England from Christmas 1066 until his death. He was also Duke of Normandy from 3 July 1035 until his death, under the name William II...
. The reason for the embassy is uncertain. William of Jumièges
William of Jumièges
William of Jumièges was a contemporary of the events of 1066, and one of our earliest writers on the subject of the Norman Conquest. He is himself a "shadowy figure", only known by his dedicatory letter to King William as a monk of Jumièges...
says that Robert went to tell Duke William that Edward wished William to be his heir. The medieval writer William of Poitiers
William of Poitiers
William of Poitiers was a Norman chronicler most famous for his eulogistic account of Duke William of Normandy , called the Gesta Guillelmi II ducis Normannorum.-Life:...
gives the same reason, but also adds that Robert took with him as hostages Godwin's son Wulfnoth
Wulfnoth Godwinson
Wulfnoth Godwinson was a younger brother of Harold II of England, the sixth son of Godwin.He was given as a hostage to Edward the Confessor in 1051 as assurance of Godwin's good behaviour and support during the confrontation between the earl and the king which led to the exile of Godwin and his...
and grandson Hakon (son of Sweyn
Sweyn Godwinson
Sweyn Godwinson , also spelled Swein, was the eldest son of Earl Godwin of Wessex, and brother of Harold II of England.- Early life :...
). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of annals in Old English chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The original manuscript of the Chronicle was created late in the 9th century, probably in Wessex, during the reign of Alfred the Great...
is silent on the visit however, so it is uncertain whether Robert visited Normandy or not, or why he did so. The entire history of the various missions which Robert is alleged to have made is confused, and complicated by propaganda claims made by Norman chroniclers after the Norman Conquest in 1066, leaving it unclear if Robert visited Normandy on his way to receive his pallium or after Godwin was in exile, or if he went twice or not at all.
Outlawing, death, and legacy
After Godwin left England, he went to FlandersFlanders
Flanders is the community of the Flemings but also one of the institutions in Belgium, and a geographical region located in parts of present-day Belgium, France and the Netherlands. "Flanders" can also refer to the northern part of Belgium that contains Brussels, Bruges, Ghent and Antwerp...
, and gathered a fleet and mercenaries in order to force the king to allow his return. In the summer of 1052, Godwin returned to England and was met by his sons, who had invaded from Ireland. By September, they were advancing on London, where negotiations between the king and the earl were conducted with the help of Stigand
Stigand
Stigand was an English churchman in pre-Norman Conquest England. Although his birthdate is unknown, by 1020, he was serving as a royal chaplain and advisor. He was named Bishop of Elmham in 1043, and then later Bishop of Winchester and Archbishop of Canterbury...
, the Bishop of Winchester
Bishop of Winchester
The Bishop of Winchester is the head of the Church of England diocese of Winchester, with his cathedra at Winchester Cathedral in Hampshire.The bishop is one of five Church of England bishops to be among the Lords Spiritual regardless of their length of service. His diocese is one of the oldest and...
. When it became apparent that Godwin would be returning, Robert quickly left England with Bishop Ulf of Dorcester
Ulfus Normanus
Ulfus Normanus was a medieval Bishop of Dorchester, when the city was seat of the united dioceses of Lindsey and Dorchester.He was consecrated in 1050 and was expelled in 1052.-References:...
and Bishop William of London, probably once again taking Wulfnoth and Hakon with him as hostages, whether with the permission of King Edward or not. Robert was declared an outlaw and deposed from his archbishopric on 14 September 1052 at a royal council, mainly because the returning Godwin felt that Robert, along with a number of other Normans, had been the driving force behind his exile. Robert journeyed to Rome to complain to the pope about his own exile, where Leo IX and successive popes condemned Stigand, whom Edward had appointed to Canterbury. Robert's personal property was divided between Earl Godwin, Harold Godwinson, and the queen, who had returned to court.
Robert died at Jumièges, but the date of his death is unclear. Various dates are given, with Ian Walker, the biographer of Harold arguing for between 1053 and 1055, but H. E. J. Cowdrey, who wrote Robert's Oxford Dictionary of National Biography entry, says on 26 May in either 1052 or 1055. H. R. Loyn
H. R. Loyn
Henry Royston Loyn , FBA, was a British historian specialising in the history of Anglo-Saxon England. His eminence in his field made him a natural candidate to run the Sylloge of the Coins of the British Isles, which he chaired from 1979 to 1993.-Works:The Sylloge's natural emphasis is on...
, another modern historian, argues that it is likely that he died in 1053.
Robert's treatment was used by William the Conqueror as one of the justifications for his invasion of England, the other being that Edward had named William his heir. Ian Walker, author of the most recent scholarly biography of Harold Godwinson
Harold Godwinson
Harold Godwinson was the last Anglo-Saxon King of England.It could be argued that Edgar the Atheling, who was proclaimed as king by the witan but never crowned, was really the last Anglo-Saxon king...
, suggests that it was Robert, while in exile after the return of Godwin, who testified that King Edward had nominated Duke William to be Edward's heir. However, this view is contradicted by David Douglas, a historian and biographer of William the Conqueror, who believes that Robert merely relayed Edward's decision, probably while Robert was on his way to Rome to receive his pallium. Several medieval chroniclers, including the author of the Life of Saint Edward, felt that the blame for Edward and Godwin's conflict in 1051–1052 lay squarely with Robert; modern historians tend to see Robert as an ambitious man, with little political skill.
Artistic patronage
In notable contrast to his successor Stigand, Robert does not figure among the important benefactors to English churches, but we know of some transfers to Jumièges of important English church treasures, the first trickle of what was to become a flood of treasure taken to Normandy after the Conquest. These included the relic of the head of Saint ValentineSaint Valentine
Saint Valentine is the name of several martyred saints of ancient Rome. The name "Valentine", derived from valens , was popular in Late Antiquity...
only recently given to the monks of Winchester Cathedral
Winchester Cathedral
Winchester Cathedral at Winchester in Hampshire is one of the largest cathedrals in England, with the longest nave and overall length of any Gothic cathedral in Europe...
by Emma of Normandy. Though the Winchester head remained in place, another one appeared at Jumièges; he "must have clandestinely removed the head, or at least the greater part of it, and left his monks to venerate the empty or nearly empty capsa". Two of the four most important surviving late Anglo-Saxon
Anglo-Saxon
Anglo-Saxon may refer to:* Anglo-Saxons, a group that invaded Britain** Old English, their language** Anglo-Saxon England, their history, one of various ships* White Anglo-Saxon Protestant, an ethnicity* Anglo-Saxon economy, modern macroeconomic term...
illuminated manuscript
Illuminated manuscript
An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration, such as decorated initials, borders and miniature illustrations...
s went the same way, thus probably preventing their destruction in a series of fires that devastated the major English libraries. One is the so-called Missal of Robert of Jumièges, actually a sacramentary
Sacramentary
The Sacramentary is a book of the Middle Ages containing the words spoken by the priest celebrating a Mass and other liturgies of the Church. The books were usually in fact written for bishops or other higher clegy such as abbots, and many lavishly decorated illuminated manuscript sacramentaries...
with thirteen surviving full-page miniatures, which bears an inscription apparently in Robert's own hand recording its donation to Jumièges when he was Bishop of London, and the other the so-called Benedictional of Archbishop Robert, actually a pontifical
Roman Pontifical
The Roman Pontifical or Pontifical, also referred to in Latin as the Pontificale or Pontificale Romanum, is the Roman Catholic liturgical book that contains the rites performed by bishops....
with three remaining full-page miniatures and other decoration (respectively Rouen, Bibliothèque Municipale, Manuscripts Y.6 and Y.7). The latter may well have been commissioned by Æthelgar, Robert's predecessor as Archbishop in 988–90, although it is possible the "Archbishop Robert" of the traditional name is Emma's brother Robert, Archbishop of Rouen from 990 to 1037. These masterpieces of the Winchester style were the most elaborately decorated Anglo-Saxon manuscripts known to have reached Normandy, either before or after the Conquest, and influenced the much less-developed local style, though this remained very largely restricted to initials.
Before he came to England, Robert had begun the construction of a new abbey church at Jumièges, in the new Romanesque style which was then becoming popular, and introduced to Normandy the two-towered western facade
Westwork
A westwork is the monumental, west-facing entrance section of a Carolingian, Ottonian, or Romanesque church. The exterior consists of multiple stories between two towers. The interior includes an entrance vestibule, a chapel, and a series of galleries overlooking the nave...
from the Rhineland
Rhineland
Historically, the Rhinelands refers to a loosely-defined region embracing the land on either bank of the River Rhine in central Europe....
. On his return to Normandy he continued to build there, and the abbey church was not finished until 1067. Although the choir has been torn down, the towers, nave
Nave
In Romanesque and Gothic Christian abbey, cathedral basilica and church architecture, the nave is the central approach to the high altar, the main body of the church. "Nave" was probably suggested by the keel shape of its vaulting...
and transept
Transept
For the periodical go to The Transept.A transept is a transverse section, of any building, which lies across the main body of the building. In Christian churches, a transept is an area set crosswise to the nave in a cruciform building in Romanesque and Gothic Christian church architecture...
s have survived. Robert probably influenced Edward the Confessor's rebuilding of the church at Westminster Abbey, the first known building in the Romanesque style in England, which is so described by William of Malmesbury
William of Malmesbury
William of Malmesbury was the foremost English historian of the 12th century. C. Warren Hollister so ranks him among the most talented generation of writers of history since Bede, "a gifted historical scholar and an omnivorous reader, impressively well versed in the literature of classical,...
. Edward's work began in about 1050 and was completed just before his death in 1065. The recorded name of one of the senior masons, "Teinfrith the churchwright" indicates foreign origins, and Robert may have arranged for Norman masons to be brought over, though other names are English. It is possible that Westminster influenced the building at Jumièges, as the arcade there closely resembles Westminster's arcade, both of them in a style that never became common in Normandy. The Early Romanesque style of both was to be superseded after the Conquest by the Anglo-Norman High Romanesque style pioneered in Canterbury Cathedral
Canterbury Cathedral
Canterbury Cathedral in Canterbury, Kent, is one of the oldest and most famous Christian structures in England and forms part of a World Heritage Site....
and St. Etienne, Caen
Abbaye-aux-Hommes
The Abbaye aux Hommes is a former abbey church in the French city of Caen, Normandy. Dedicated to Saint Stephen , it is considered, along with the neighbouring Abbaye aux Dames , to be one of the most notable Romanesque buildings in Normandy. Like all the major abbeys in Normandy, it was Benedictine...
by Lanfranc
Lanfranc
Lanfranc was Archbishop of Canterbury, and a Lombard by birth.-Early life:Lanfranc was born in the early years of the 11th century at Pavia, where later tradition held that his father, Hanbald, held a rank broadly equivalent to magistrate...
.