Robert of Melun
Encyclopedia
Robert of Melun was an English scholastic
Christian theologian who taught in France, and later became Bishop of Hereford
in England. He studied under Peter Abelard
in Paris before teaching there and at Melun, which gave him his surname. His students included John of Salisbury
, Roger of Worcester
, William of Tyre
, and possibly Thomas Becket
. Robert was involved in the Council of Reims in 1148, which condemned the teachings of Gilbert de la Porrée
. Three of his theological works survive, and show him to have been strictly orthodox.
Robert returned to England in 1160, and was appointed Bishop of Hereford in 1163. King Henry II of England
appointed him to the see, or bishopric, and was influenced by in his decision by Pope Alexander II
and Thomas Becket. Following his consecration, Robert became involved in the dispute between Becket and the king, during which he generally took the king's side. He also served as a papal and a royal judge.
in France. Robert studied under Peter Abelard and Hugh of St. Victor at the University of Paris
, where in 1137 he succeeded Abelard as a teacher in the school on Mont Ste-Geneviève. John of Salisbury and William of Tyre were among his pupils in Paris. King Henry II of England's cousin, Roger of Worcester, later the Bishop of Worcester
, was another of Robert's students. He probably also taught Thomas Becket, later Archbishop of Canterbury
, although this is not certain.
Robert went to Melun in 1142 to direct a school, but returned to Paris in 1147. He took part in the condemnation of Gilbert de la Porrée at the Council of Rheims in 1148, working with Peter Lombard
to secure Porrée's recantation. A small consistory
court was held after the ending of the council's deliberations, and was attended by Bernard of Clairvaux
and Suger
of St Denis, along with Robert and Peter. This court forced Porrée to repudiate his views on the Trinity
. A fellow scholar, Herbert of Bosham
, described Robert as a great teacher, who "sent forth from himself, like rays of his light, a great and learned host of students".
on 22 December by Archbishop Thomas Becket. Becket had been prominent among those recommending Robert for the vacancy at Hereford; one of Becket's later biographers said that Becket urged the king to find benefice
s for Englishmen living abroad. There is some evidence that Pope Alexander III
had a hand in Robert's election, as Becket in 1166 reminded Robert and Roger of Worcester that they both owed their episcopates to Alexander.
Little evidence of Robert's activities survives from his time as bishop, although it is known that he acted as a papal judge-delegate
in 1165. Five dosuments survive from his time at Hereford, as well as confirmations of gifts by previous bishops to Llanthony Priory
, which he augmented with another grant of tithes. He also served as a royal judge.
in October 1163, the king and Becket contended over the question, with the bishops supporting Becket against the king. Robert was involved in the conflict not only as a bishop-elect, but as an envoy to Becket from the pope, as he accompanied Philip of Aumone, a French abbot, who was sent by Alexander to Becket in after the Council of Westminster to urge Becket not to inflame the situation. Robert went with Philip, probably because it was hoped he would be able to influence Becket.
Robert was present in January 1164 when the king summoned a council of the barons and the bishops to Clarendon, where the king demanded that both groups swear to uphold the royal rights of Henry's grandfather, King Henry I
, without any reservations or conditions. Although Becket at first attempted to resist, he eventually submitted, and then forced the other bishops to swear also. In October 1164, Becket was accused of denying justice to a royal vassal, tried at a council held at Northampton
, and was found guilty although he did not accept the sentence. During the trial, Robert attempted to moderate Becket's behavior, by persuading him from having his archiepiscopal cross, a symbol of spiritual authority, carried in front of him when he entered the court, which would have been an insult to the king. Shortly after the trial, Robert interceded with the king to order that no injury be done to Becket, who went into voluntary exile.
Early in Becket's exile, Robert received a papal censure for not doing more to support Becket. In summer 1165, Robert accompanied Gilbert Foliot
, the Bishop of London
, on a papal mission to King Henry, in order to convey to the king Pope Alexander's complaints about the king's behaviour. The king had been preventing his subjects from visiting or appealing to the papacy, and Alexander wished to protest against that, as well as against the king's treatment of Becket. In 1166, Becket tried to convince Robert to switch sides, writing to Robert in conciliatory tones. John of Salisbury, a supporter of Becket's, prevailed upon two French academics to write to Robert, criticising him for hypocrisy.
In October 1166, Becket ordered Robert and Roger of Worcester to attend him in France, so they could give him guidance on his dispute with the king. When they informed the king of their intended journey he forbade them to leave England. Nevertheless they attempted to sneak out of the country in February 1167. They were apprehended on 2 February, and ordered to remain in England not only in the king's name, but also in Alexander's.
. The dating of the works is problematic, but it appears that the first two works were composed between 1145 and 1157. The Sententiae was revised twice, probably during the 1150s and the 1160s. His works, especially the Sententiae, cover the entire subject of theology and are strictly orthodox in Christian doctrine.
Robert's Sententiae, or Summa Theologica, was well known in his time, and has been considered a key connection in theology between Robert's own teachers' works and the works of Peter Lombard. Robert is the first commentator on St Paul to say that resistance to a tyrant might be vindicated by the Bible. Robert also opined that a king might be excommunicated if royal actions harmed the church. Robert used Gratian
's works as sources for his own, citing the Decretum Gratiani
. Although he used this work, which dealt with church law, he does not appear to have been considered a lawyer, and his training was that of a theologian. Furthermore, his years as a student predated the establishment of canon law
as a distinct discipline in the European schools. Robert's views of the glossator
s, and their main work Glossa Ordinaria
was that they had shortened their glosses to such a point that they made them unintelligible. Robert was also known as a logician, and John of Salisbury named him one of the leading disputatores, or a person who used rhetoric and logic to debate in public.
Although Robert condemned Gilbert Porrée in conjunction with Peter Lombard, he did not agree with Lombard's Christology
, or views on the nature of Jesus Christ. Likewise, although he disagreed with some of Abelard's teachings, he defended Abelard against charges of heresy. Robert did, however, agree with some of Abelard's teachings and methods. The introduction to the Sententiae proclaims Robert's desire to harmonize the writings of two unnamed scholars, who have been identified by modern writers as Hugh of St Victor and Abelard.
, one of Becket's supporters, wrote that Robert died of grief because he was unable to visit Becket in exile. He was buried in Hereford Cathedral. Robert enjoyed a good reputation on the continent, for his knowledge and teaching ability, as well as for his personal qualities. Before his appointment to Hereford, John of Salisbury had praised him, but Robert's conduct during the Becket controversy soured John's attitude towards his old teacher.
His works have been published in four volumes, edited by R. M. Martin. Robert's episcopal documents are in Hereford 1079–1234: English Episcopal Acta Number 7, published in 1993.
Scholasticism
Scholasticism is a method of critical thought which dominated teaching by the academics of medieval universities in Europe from about 1100–1500, and a program of employing that method in articulating and defending orthodoxy in an increasingly pluralistic context...
Christian theologian who taught in France, and later became Bishop of Hereford
Bishop of Hereford
The Bishop of Hereford is the Ordinary of the Church of England Diocese of Hereford in the Province of Canterbury.The see is in the City of Hereford where the seat is located at the Cathedral Church of Saint Mary and Saint Ethelbert which was founded as a cathedral in 676.The Bishop's residence is...
in England. He studied under Peter Abelard
Peter Abelard
Peter Abelard was a medieval French scholastic philosopher, theologian and preeminent logician. The story of his affair with and love for Héloïse has become legendary...
in Paris before teaching there and at Melun, which gave him his surname. His students included John of Salisbury
John of Salisbury
John of Salisbury , who described himself as Johannes Parvus , was an English author, educationalist, diplomat and bishop of Chartres, and was born at Salisbury.-Early life and education:...
, Roger of Worcester
Roger of Worcester
Roger of Worcester was Bishop of Worcester from 1164 to 1179. He had a major role in the controversy between Henry II of England, who was Roger's cousin, and Archbishop Thomas Becket.-Life:...
, William of Tyre
William of Tyre
William of Tyre was a medieval prelate and chronicler. As archbishop of Tyre, he is sometimes known as William II to distinguish him from a predecessor, William of Malines...
, and possibly Thomas Becket
Thomas Becket
Thomas Becket was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1162 until his murder in 1170. He is venerated as a saint and martyr by both the Roman Catholic Church and the Anglican Communion...
. Robert was involved in the Council of Reims in 1148, which condemned the teachings of Gilbert de la Porrée
Gilbert de la Porrée
Gilbert de la Porrée , also known as Gilbert of Poitiers, Gilbertus Porretanus or Pictaviensis, was a scholastic logician and theologian.-Life:...
. Three of his theological works survive, and show him to have been strictly orthodox.
Robert returned to England in 1160, and was appointed Bishop of Hereford in 1163. King Henry II of England
Henry II of England
Henry II ruled as King of England , Count of Anjou, Count of Maine, Duke of Normandy, Duke of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony, Count of Nantes, Lord of Ireland and, at various times, controlled parts of Wales, Scotland and western France. Henry, the great-grandson of William the Conqueror, was the...
appointed him to the see, or bishopric, and was influenced by in his decision by Pope Alexander II
Pope Alexander II
Pope Alexander II , born Anselmo da Baggio, was Pope from 1061 to 1073.He was born in Milan. As bishop of Lucca he had been an energetic coadjutor with Hildebrand of Sovana in endeavouring to suppress simony, and to enforce the celibacy of the clergy...
and Thomas Becket. Following his consecration, Robert became involved in the dispute between Becket and the king, during which he generally took the king's side. He also served as a papal and a royal judge.
Early life
Robert was born in England, probably in about 1100. Nothing else is known of his background. He owed his name to the place where he taught, MelunMelun
Melun is a commune in the Seine-et-Marne department in the Île-de-France region in north-central France. Located in the south-eastern suburbs of Paris, Melun is the capital of the department, as the seat of an arrondissement...
in France. Robert studied under Peter Abelard and Hugh of St. Victor at the University of Paris
University of Paris
The University of Paris was a university located in Paris, France and one of the earliest to be established in Europe. It was founded in the mid 12th century, and officially recognized as a university probably between 1160 and 1250...
, where in 1137 he succeeded Abelard as a teacher in the school on Mont Ste-Geneviève. John of Salisbury and William of Tyre were among his pupils in Paris. King Henry II of England's cousin, Roger of Worcester, later the Bishop of Worcester
Bishop of Worcester
The Bishop of Worcester is the Ordinary of the Church of England Diocese of Worcester in the Province of Canterbury, England. He is the head of the Diocese of Worcester in the Province of Canterbury...
, was another of Robert's students. He probably also taught Thomas Becket, later Archbishop of Canterbury
Archbishop of Canterbury
The Archbishop of Canterbury is the senior bishop and principal leader of the Church of England, the symbolic head of the worldwide Anglican Communion, and the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury. In his role as head of the Anglican Communion, the archbishop leads the third largest group...
, although this is not certain.
Robert went to Melun in 1142 to direct a school, but returned to Paris in 1147. He took part in the condemnation of Gilbert de la Porrée at the Council of Rheims in 1148, working with Peter Lombard
Peter Lombard
Peter Lombard was a scholastic theologian and bishop and author of Four Books of Sentences, which became the standard textbook of theology, for which he is also known as Magister Sententiarum-Biography:Peter Lombard was born in Lumellogno , in...
to secure Porrée's recantation. A small consistory
Consistory
-Antiquity:Originally, the Latin word consistorium meant simply 'sitting together', just as the Greek synedrion ....
court was held after the ending of the council's deliberations, and was attended by Bernard of Clairvaux
Bernard of Clairvaux
Bernard of Clairvaux, O.Cist was a French abbot and the primary builder of the reforming Cistercian order.After the death of his mother, Bernard sought admission into the Cistercian order. Three years later, he was sent to found a new abbey at an isolated clearing in a glen known as the Val...
and Suger
Abbot Suger
Suger was one of the last Frankish abbot-statesmen, an historian, and the influential first patron of Gothic architecture....
of St Denis, along with Robert and Peter. This court forced Porrée to repudiate his views on the Trinity
Trinity
The Christian doctrine of the Trinity defines God as three divine persons : the Father, the Son , and the Holy Spirit. The three persons are distinct yet coexist in unity, and are co-equal, co-eternal and consubstantial . Put another way, the three persons of the Trinity are of one being...
. A fellow scholar, Herbert of Bosham
Herbert of Bosham
Herbert of Bosham was a twelfth century English biographer of Thomas Becket, dates of birth and death unknown.-Early life:He was probably born in Bosham, Sussex, from which he took his name.He studied theology in Paris as a pupil of Peter Lombard...
, described Robert as a great teacher, who "sent forth from himself, like rays of his light, a great and learned host of students".
Appointment to Hereford
After teaching as a master of arts in Paris for over forty years, Robert was recalled to England by King Henry II in 1160, and was appointed Bishop of Hereford in 1163. He was consecrated at CanterburyCanterbury
Canterbury is a historic English cathedral city, which lies at the heart of the City of Canterbury, a district of Kent in South East England. It lies on the River Stour....
on 22 December by Archbishop Thomas Becket. Becket had been prominent among those recommending Robert for the vacancy at Hereford; one of Becket's later biographers said that Becket urged the king to find benefice
Benefice
A benefice is a reward received in exchange for services rendered and as a retainer for future services. The term is now almost obsolete.-Church of England:...
s for Englishmen living abroad. There is some evidence that Pope Alexander III
Pope Alexander III
Pope Alexander III , born Rolando of Siena, was Pope from 1159 to 1181. He is noted in history for laying the foundation stone for the Notre Dame de Paris.-Church career:...
had a hand in Robert's election, as Becket in 1166 reminded Robert and Roger of Worcester that they both owed their episcopates to Alexander.
Little evidence of Robert's activities survives from his time as bishop, although it is known that he acted as a papal judge-delegate
Papal judge-delegate
A papal judge delegate was a type of judicial appointment created during the 12th century by the medieval papacy where the pope would designate a local judge, often an ecclesiastic, to decide a case that had been appealed to the papal court....
in 1165. Five dosuments survive from his time at Hereford, as well as confirmations of gifts by previous bishops to Llanthony Priory
Llanthony Priory
Llanthony Priory is a partly ruined former Augustinian priory in the secluded Vale of Ewyas, a steep sided once glaciated valley within the Black Mountains area of the Brecon Beacons National Park in Monmouthshire, south east Wales. It lies seven miles north of Abergavenny on an old road to Hay...
, which he augmented with another grant of tithes. He also served as a royal judge.
Role in the Becket dispute
In 1163, a conflict arose between the king and the new Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Becket, over the rights of the king in the English church. At a council held at WestminsterWestminster
Westminster is an area of central London, within the City of Westminster, England. It lies on the north bank of the River Thames, southwest of the City of London and southwest of Charing Cross...
in October 1163, the king and Becket contended over the question, with the bishops supporting Becket against the king. Robert was involved in the conflict not only as a bishop-elect, but as an envoy to Becket from the pope, as he accompanied Philip of Aumone, a French abbot, who was sent by Alexander to Becket in after the Council of Westminster to urge Becket not to inflame the situation. Robert went with Philip, probably because it was hoped he would be able to influence Becket.
Robert was present in January 1164 when the king summoned a council of the barons and the bishops to Clarendon, where the king demanded that both groups swear to uphold the royal rights of Henry's grandfather, King Henry I
Henry I of England
Henry I was the fourth son of William I of England. He succeeded his elder brother William II as King of England in 1100 and defeated his eldest brother, Robert Curthose, to become Duke of Normandy in 1106...
, without any reservations or conditions. Although Becket at first attempted to resist, he eventually submitted, and then forced the other bishops to swear also. In October 1164, Becket was accused of denying justice to a royal vassal, tried at a council held at Northampton
Northampton
Northampton is a large market town and local government district in the East Midlands region of England. Situated about north-west of London and around south-east of Birmingham, Northampton lies on the River Nene and is the county town of Northamptonshire. The demonym of Northampton is...
, and was found guilty although he did not accept the sentence. During the trial, Robert attempted to moderate Becket's behavior, by persuading him from having his archiepiscopal cross, a symbol of spiritual authority, carried in front of him when he entered the court, which would have been an insult to the king. Shortly after the trial, Robert interceded with the king to order that no injury be done to Becket, who went into voluntary exile.
Early in Becket's exile, Robert received a papal censure for not doing more to support Becket. In summer 1165, Robert accompanied Gilbert Foliot
Gilbert Foliot
Gilbert Foliot was a medieval English monk and prelate, successively Abbot of Gloucester, Bishop of Hereford and Bishop of London. Born to an ecclesiastical family, he became a monk at Cluny Abbey in France at about the age of twenty...
, the Bishop of London
Bishop of London
The Bishop of London is the ordinary of the Church of England Diocese of London in the Province of Canterbury.The diocese covers 458 km² of 17 boroughs of Greater London north of the River Thames and a small part of the County of Surrey...
, on a papal mission to King Henry, in order to convey to the king Pope Alexander's complaints about the king's behaviour. The king had been preventing his subjects from visiting or appealing to the papacy, and Alexander wished to protest against that, as well as against the king's treatment of Becket. In 1166, Becket tried to convince Robert to switch sides, writing to Robert in conciliatory tones. John of Salisbury, a supporter of Becket's, prevailed upon two French academics to write to Robert, criticising him for hypocrisy.
In October 1166, Becket ordered Robert and Roger of Worcester to attend him in France, so they could give him guidance on his dispute with the king. When they informed the king of their intended journey he forbade them to leave England. Nevertheless they attempted to sneak out of the country in February 1167. They were apprehended on 2 February, and ordered to remain in England not only in the king's name, but also in Alexander's.
Theology
Robert's theology is expressed in his three surviving works, the Quaestiones de divina pagina, Quaestiones de epistolis Pauli, and the unfinished SententiaeSententiae
Sententiae are brief moral sayings, such as proverbs, adages, aphorisms, maxims, or apophthegms taken from ancient or popular or other sources, often quoted without context. A sententia , also called a "sentence," is a kind of rhetorical proof...
. The dating of the works is problematic, but it appears that the first two works were composed between 1145 and 1157. The Sententiae was revised twice, probably during the 1150s and the 1160s. His works, especially the Sententiae, cover the entire subject of theology and are strictly orthodox in Christian doctrine.
Robert's Sententiae, or Summa Theologica, was well known in his time, and has been considered a key connection in theology between Robert's own teachers' works and the works of Peter Lombard. Robert is the first commentator on St Paul to say that resistance to a tyrant might be vindicated by the Bible. Robert also opined that a king might be excommunicated if royal actions harmed the church. Robert used Gratian
Gratian
Gratian was Roman Emperor from 375 to 383.The eldest son of Valentinian I, during his youth Gratian accompanied his father on several campaigns along the Rhine and Danube frontiers. Upon the death of Valentinian in 375, Gratian's brother Valentinian II was declared emperor by his father's soldiers...
's works as sources for his own, citing the Decretum Gratiani
Decretum Gratiani
The Decretum Gratiani or Concordia discordantium canonum is a collection of Canon law compiled and written in the 12th century as a legal textbook by the jurist known as Gratian. It forms the first part of the collection of six legal texts, which together became known as the Corpus Juris Canonici...
. Although he used this work, which dealt with church law, he does not appear to have been considered a lawyer, and his training was that of a theologian. Furthermore, his years as a student predated the establishment of canon law
Canon law
Canon law is the body of laws & regulations made or adopted by ecclesiastical authority, for the government of the Christian organization and its members. It is the internal ecclesiastical law governing the Catholic Church , the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox churches, and the Anglican Communion of...
as a distinct discipline in the European schools. Robert's views of the glossator
Glossator
The scholars of the 11th and 12th century legal schools in Italy, France and Germany are identified as glossators in a specific sense. They studied Roman Law based on the Digestae, the Codex of Justinian, the Authenticae The scholars of the 11th and 12th century legal schools in Italy, France and...
s, and their main work Glossa Ordinaria
Glossa Ordinaria
The Glossa ordinaria , Lat., "the ordinary gloss/interpretation/explanation", was an assembly of glosses, from the Church Fathers and thereafter, printed in the margins of the Vulgate Bible; these were widely used in the education system of Christendom in Cathedral schools from the Carolingian...
was that they had shortened their glosses to such a point that they made them unintelligible. Robert was also known as a logician, and John of Salisbury named him one of the leading disputatores, or a person who used rhetoric and logic to debate in public.
Although Robert condemned Gilbert Porrée in conjunction with Peter Lombard, he did not agree with Lombard's Christology
Christology
Christology is the field of study within Christian theology which is primarily concerned with the nature and person of Jesus Christ as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament. Primary considerations include the relationship of Jesus' nature and person with the nature...
, or views on the nature of Jesus Christ. Likewise, although he disagreed with some of Abelard's teachings, he defended Abelard against charges of heresy. Robert did, however, agree with some of Abelard's teachings and methods. The introduction to the Sententiae proclaims Robert's desire to harmonize the writings of two unnamed scholars, who have been identified by modern writers as Hugh of St Victor and Abelard.
Death and legacy
Robert died on 27 February 1167. William fitzStephenWilliam Fitzstephen
William Fitzstephen , died c. 1191, was a cleric and administrator in the service of Thomas Becket, becoming a Subdeacon in his chapel, with responsibility for perusing letters and petitions. He witnessed Becket's murder, and wrote his biography - the Vita Sancti Thomae William Fitzstephen (also...
, one of Becket's supporters, wrote that Robert died of grief because he was unable to visit Becket in exile. He was buried in Hereford Cathedral. Robert enjoyed a good reputation on the continent, for his knowledge and teaching ability, as well as for his personal qualities. Before his appointment to Hereford, John of Salisbury had praised him, but Robert's conduct during the Becket controversy soured John's attitude towards his old teacher.
His works have been published in four volumes, edited by R. M. Martin. Robert's episcopal documents are in Hereford 1079–1234: English Episcopal Acta Number 7, published in 1993.