Rosh Hashanah (Talmud)
Encyclopedia
Rosh Hashanah is the name of a text of Jewish law originating in the Mishnah
which formed the basis of tractates in both the Babylonian Talmud
and the Jerusalem Talmud
of the same name. It is the eighth tractate of the order Moed
. The text contains the most important rules concerning the calendar year, together with a description of the inauguration of the months, laws on the form and use of the shofar
and laws related to the religious services during the Jewish holiday of Rosh Hashanah
.
commences with an account of the four beginnings of the religious and the civil year (1:1); it speaks of the four judgement-days of the pilgrim festivals and Rosh ha-Shanah (1:2); of the six months in which the messengers of the Sanhedrin
announce the month (1:3); of the two months, the beginnings of which witnesses announce to the Sanhedrin even on the Sabbath (1:4), and even if the moon is visible to every one (1:5); Gamliel even sent on the Sabbath
for forty pairs of witnesses from a distance (1:6); when father and son (who as relatives may otherwise not witness together) behold the new moon
they must set out for the beth din
(1:7), since they do not absolutely belong to those that are legally unfit for this purpose (1:8).
The weak and sick are borne on litters, and are protected against the attacks of the Sadducees; they must be provided with food, for witnesses were bound to journey even on the Sabbath (1:9). Others went along to identify the unknown (2:1). In olden times bonfire
-signals on the mountains announced to all as far as Babylon
that the month had been sanctified. The custom of having witnesses and messengers was introduced after the Sadducees had attempted to practice deception (2:2, 2:3, 2:4). The large court called Bet Ya'azeḳ was the assembly-place for the witnesses (2:5); bountiful repasts awaited them, and dispensations from the Law were granted to them (2:6); the first pair of witnesses was questioned separately concerning the appearance of the moon, but all other witnesses were questioned at least cursorily. The Mishnah makes the point that all witnesses must be made to feel their testimony is valued to ensure witnesses continue to come to courts (2:6). Then the av bet din (head of the Court) called out to a large assembly, "Sanctified!" all the people cried out aloud after him (2:8). Gamliel II had representations of the moon which he showed to the witnesses. There once arose a dispute between him and Joshua regarding the Tishri moon; the latter, in obedience to the nasi
, came on foot to Jamnia
on the day which he had calculated to be the Day of Atonement
, and the two scholars made peace (iii.). There were various obstacles to the sanctification of the months, as when time was lacking for the ceremony, or when there were no witnesses present before the bet din. In the first case the following day became the new moon; in the second case the bet din alone performed the sanctification.
(iii.2); the horn of the cow may not be used (iii.2); the form of the trumpet for Rosh ha-Shanah, the fast-day, and Yobel is determined (iii.3-5); injuries to the shofar and the remedies are indicated (iii.6); in times of danger the people that pray assemble in pits and caves (iii.7); they pass the house of worship only on the outside while the trumpets sound (iii.7); they are exhorted to be firm by being reminded of Moses
' uplifted hands in the war with the Amalekites (iii.8). In such times the deaf-mutes, insane, and children are legally unfit for blowing the trumpets. Johanan ben Zakkai established that the shofar trumpets be blown at Jamnia and the surrounding places even if the festival fell on the Sabbath, while at one time this was done only in the Temple
(iv.1); he also fixed the lulav
outside of the Temple for seven days, and forbade the eating of new grain on the second day of Passover
(iv.2); he extended the time for examining witnesses until the evening, and had them come to Jamnia even in the absence of the av bet din (iv.3). The Mishnah then treats of the order of the prayers (iv.4), of the succession of the Malkuyot, Zikronot, and Shoferot, of the Bible sentences concerning the kingdom of God, Providence, and the trumpet-call of the future (iv.5), and of the leader in prayer and his relation to the teki'ah (iv.6); descriptions of the festival are given in reference to the shofar (iv.7); then follows the order of the traditional trumpet-sounds (iv.8); and remarks on the duties of the leader in prayer and of the congregation close the treatise (iv.9).
follows it, adding comments that form the basis of the Gemara
in both Talmuds. The contents of the Mishnah with the corresponding sections of the Tosefta are as follows:
General calendar for the year, i.1-4 = Tosef. i.1-13. Regulations concerning the months' witnesses, i.5-ii.1 (connecting with i.4) = Tosef. i.15-ii.1 (abbreviated). Historical matter regarding fire-signals and messengers and their reception on the Sabbath, ii.2-6 = Tosef. ii.2 (abbreviated). The continuation of the laws of ii.1 concerning witnesses (ii.7, 8), and the questioning of witnesses, and the sanctification of the months are entirely lacking in the Tosefta. Historical data concerning Gamaliel and the dispute with Joshua, ii.8-9 = Tosef. ii.3 (a mere final sentence). Continuation of the laws of ii.7 concerning witnesses, iii.1 = Tosef. iii.1, 2. Regulations regarding the shofar and its use, iii.2-5 = Tosef. iii.3-6a. Haggadic
sentence on devotion = Tosef. iii.6b. Final remarks on the shofar and on its obligations, iii.6-end = Tosef. iv.1. Ordinances of Johanan ben Zakkai concerning Rosh ha-Shanah and the Sabbath, and other matters = Tosef. iv.2. Order of worship, iv.5-end = Tosef. iv.4-end.
Mishnah ii.7 seems to have been transposed according to Tosef. iv.3, but it belongs there according to its contents.
In quoting many of Gamliel's ordinances the Mishnah emphasizes the authority of the patriarchal house by recounting the dispute between the patriarch and his deputy Joshua and showing how the latter was forced to yield. The Tosefta omits the ordinances of Gamliel and of Johanan ben Zakkai, and the dispute of the two leaders of the school-house, nor does it mention anything of the power of any tannaitic dignitary; the Tosefta is here a product of the time of the Amoraim. The dignity of the nasi is not emphasized, because acumen and scholarship prevailed in the schoolhouse, and there was no desire to let old precedences (see Eduyot) come to the fore again. Even the Mishnah contains some additions from the time of the Amoraim (see, for example, iv.2, where a gap must be filled from the Tosefta).
Mishnah
The Mishnah or Mishna is the first major written redaction of the Jewish oral traditions called the "Oral Torah". It is also the first major work of Rabbinic Judaism. It was redacted c...
which formed the basis of tractates in both the Babylonian Talmud
Talmud
The Talmud is a central text of mainstream Judaism. It takes the form of a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, philosophy, customs and history....
and the Jerusalem Talmud
Jerusalem Talmud
The Jerusalem Talmud, talmud meaning "instruction", "learning", , is a collection of Rabbinic notes on the 2nd-century Mishnah which was compiled in the Land of Israel during the 4th-5th century. The voluminous text is also known as the Palestinian Talmud or Talmud de-Eretz Yisrael...
of the same name. It is the eighth tractate of the order Moed
Moed
Moed is the second Order of the Mishnah, the first written recording of the Oral Torah of the Jewish people . Of the six orders of the Mishna, Moed is the third shortest. The order of Moed consists of 12 tractates:# Shabbat: or Shabbath deals with the 39 prohibitions of "work" on the Shabbat...
. The text contains the most important rules concerning the calendar year, together with a description of the inauguration of the months, laws on the form and use of the shofar
Shofar
A shofar is a horn, traditionally that of a ram, used for Jewish religious purposes. Shofar-blowing is incorporated in synagogue services on Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur.Shofar come in a variety of sizes.- Bible and rabbinic literature :...
and laws related to the religious services during the Jewish holiday of Rosh Hashanah
Rosh Hashanah
Rosh Hashanah , , is the Jewish New Year. It is the first of the High Holy Days or Yamim Nora'im which occur in the autumn...
.
Contents
The MishnahMishnah
The Mishnah or Mishna is the first major written redaction of the Jewish oral traditions called the "Oral Torah". It is also the first major work of Rabbinic Judaism. It was redacted c...
commences with an account of the four beginnings of the religious and the civil year (1:1); it speaks of the four judgement-days of the pilgrim festivals and Rosh ha-Shanah (1:2); of the six months in which the messengers of the Sanhedrin
Sanhedrin
The Sanhedrin was an assembly of twenty-three judges appointed in every city in the Biblical Land of Israel.The Great Sanhedrin was the supreme court of ancient Israel made of 71 members...
announce the month (1:3); of the two months, the beginnings of which witnesses announce to the Sanhedrin even on the Sabbath (1:4), and even if the moon is visible to every one (1:5); Gamliel even sent on the Sabbath
Shabbat
Shabbat is the seventh day of the Jewish week and a day of rest in Judaism. Shabbat is observed from a few minutes before sunset on Friday evening until a few minutes after when one would expect to be able to see three stars in the sky on Saturday night. The exact times, therefore, differ from...
for forty pairs of witnesses from a distance (1:6); when father and son (who as relatives may otherwise not witness together) behold the new moon
New moon
In astronomical terminology, the new moon is the lunar phase that occurs when the Moon, in its monthly orbital motion around Earth, lies between Earth and the Sun, and is therefore in conjunction with the Sun as seen from Earth...
they must set out for the beth din
Beth din
A beth din, bet din, beit din or beis din is a rabbinical court of Judaism. In ancient times, it was the building block of the legal system in the Biblical Land of Israel...
(1:7), since they do not absolutely belong to those that are legally unfit for this purpose (1:8).
The weak and sick are borne on litters, and are protected against the attacks of the Sadducees; they must be provided with food, for witnesses were bound to journey even on the Sabbath (1:9). Others went along to identify the unknown (2:1). In olden times bonfire
Bonfire
A bonfire is a controlled outdoor fire used for informal disposal of burnable waste material or as part of a celebration. Celebratory bonfires are typically designed to burn quickly and may be very large...
-signals on the mountains announced to all as far as Babylon
Babylon
Babylon was an Akkadian city-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which are found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq, about 85 kilometers south of Baghdad...
that the month had been sanctified. The custom of having witnesses and messengers was introduced after the Sadducees had attempted to practice deception (2:2, 2:3, 2:4). The large court called Bet Ya'azeḳ was the assembly-place for the witnesses (2:5); bountiful repasts awaited them, and dispensations from the Law were granted to them (2:6); the first pair of witnesses was questioned separately concerning the appearance of the moon, but all other witnesses were questioned at least cursorily. The Mishnah makes the point that all witnesses must be made to feel their testimony is valued to ensure witnesses continue to come to courts (2:6). Then the av bet din (head of the Court) called out to a large assembly, "Sanctified!" all the people cried out aloud after him (2:8). Gamliel II had representations of the moon which he showed to the witnesses. There once arose a dispute between him and Joshua regarding the Tishri moon; the latter, in obedience to the nasi
Nasi
Nāśī’ is a Hebrew title meaning prince in Biblical Hebrew, Prince in Mishnaic Hebrew, or president in Modern Hebrew.-Genesis and Ancient Israel:...
, came on foot to Jamnia
Jamnia
Jamnia may refer to:*Council of Jamnia, a hypothetical Jewish council in the 1st century CE*Yavne, city in Israel unofficially called Jamnia*Jamnia, a former princely state in India...
on the day which he had calculated to be the Day of Atonement
Yom Kippur
Yom Kippur , also known as Day of Atonement, is the holiest and most solemn day of the year for the Jews. Its central themes are atonement and repentance. Jews traditionally observe this holy day with a 25-hour period of fasting and intensive prayer, often spending most of the day in synagogue...
, and the two scholars made peace (iii.). There were various obstacles to the sanctification of the months, as when time was lacking for the ceremony, or when there were no witnesses present before the bet din. In the first case the following day became the new moon; in the second case the bet din alone performed the sanctification.
The Shofar
The Mishnah treats also the laws of the shofarShofar
A shofar is a horn, traditionally that of a ram, used for Jewish religious purposes. Shofar-blowing is incorporated in synagogue services on Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur.Shofar come in a variety of sizes.- Bible and rabbinic literature :...
(iii.2); the horn of the cow may not be used (iii.2); the form of the trumpet for Rosh ha-Shanah, the fast-day, and Yobel is determined (iii.3-5); injuries to the shofar and the remedies are indicated (iii.6); in times of danger the people that pray assemble in pits and caves (iii.7); they pass the house of worship only on the outside while the trumpets sound (iii.7); they are exhorted to be firm by being reminded of Moses
Moses
Moses was, according to the Hebrew Bible and Qur'an, a religious leader, lawgiver and prophet, to whom the authorship of the Torah is traditionally attributed...
' uplifted hands in the war with the Amalekites (iii.8). In such times the deaf-mutes, insane, and children are legally unfit for blowing the trumpets. Johanan ben Zakkai established that the shofar trumpets be blown at Jamnia and the surrounding places even if the festival fell on the Sabbath, while at one time this was done only in the Temple
Temple in Jerusalem
The Temple in Jerusalem or Holy Temple , refers to one of a series of structures which were historically located on the Temple Mount in the Old City of Jerusalem, the current site of the Dome of the Rock. Historically, these successive temples stood at this location and functioned as the centre of...
(iv.1); he also fixed the lulav
Lulav
The Lulav is a closed frond of the date palm tree. It is one of the arba'ah minim used in the morning prayer services during the Jewish holiday of Sukkot...
outside of the Temple for seven days, and forbade the eating of new grain on the second day of Passover
Passover
Passover is a Jewish holiday and festival. It commemorates the story of the Exodus, in which the ancient Israelites were freed from slavery in Egypt...
(iv.2); he extended the time for examining witnesses until the evening, and had them come to Jamnia even in the absence of the av bet din (iv.3). The Mishnah then treats of the order of the prayers (iv.4), of the succession of the Malkuyot, Zikronot, and Shoferot, of the Bible sentences concerning the kingdom of God, Providence, and the trumpet-call of the future (iv.5), and of the leader in prayer and his relation to the teki'ah (iv.6); descriptions of the festival are given in reference to the shofar (iv.7); then follows the order of the traditional trumpet-sounds (iv.8); and remarks on the duties of the leader in prayer and of the congregation close the treatise (iv.9).
The Tosefta
Curious as is the order of subjects followed in this treatise, in which several mishnaic sources have been combined, the ToseftaTosefta
The Tosefta is a compilation of the Jewish oral law from the period of the Mishnah.-Overview:...
follows it, adding comments that form the basis of the Gemara
Gemara
The Gemara is the component of the Talmud comprising rabbinical analysis of and commentary on the Mishnah. After the Mishnah was published by Rabbi Judah the Prince The Gemara (also transliterated Gemora or, less commonly, Gemorra; from Aramaic גמרא gamar; literally, "[to] study" or "learning by...
in both Talmuds. The contents of the Mishnah with the corresponding sections of the Tosefta are as follows:
General calendar for the year, i.1-4 = Tosef. i.1-13. Regulations concerning the months' witnesses, i.5-ii.1 (connecting with i.4) = Tosef. i.15-ii.1 (abbreviated). Historical matter regarding fire-signals and messengers and their reception on the Sabbath, ii.2-6 = Tosef. ii.2 (abbreviated). The continuation of the laws of ii.1 concerning witnesses (ii.7, 8), and the questioning of witnesses, and the sanctification of the months are entirely lacking in the Tosefta. Historical data concerning Gamaliel and the dispute with Joshua, ii.8-9 = Tosef. ii.3 (a mere final sentence). Continuation of the laws of ii.7 concerning witnesses, iii.1 = Tosef. iii.1, 2. Regulations regarding the shofar and its use, iii.2-5 = Tosef. iii.3-6a. Haggadic
Aggadah
Aggadah refers to the homiletic and non-legalistic exegetical texts in the classical rabbinic literature of Judaism, particularly as recorded in the Talmud and Midrash...
sentence on devotion = Tosef. iii.6b. Final remarks on the shofar and on its obligations, iii.6-end = Tosef. iv.1. Ordinances of Johanan ben Zakkai concerning Rosh ha-Shanah and the Sabbath, and other matters = Tosef. iv.2. Order of worship, iv.5-end = Tosef. iv.4-end.
Mishnah ii.7 seems to have been transposed according to Tosef. iv.3, but it belongs there according to its contents.
In quoting many of Gamliel's ordinances the Mishnah emphasizes the authority of the patriarchal house by recounting the dispute between the patriarch and his deputy Joshua and showing how the latter was forced to yield. The Tosefta omits the ordinances of Gamliel and of Johanan ben Zakkai, and the dispute of the two leaders of the school-house, nor does it mention anything of the power of any tannaitic dignitary; the Tosefta is here a product of the time of the Amoraim. The dignity of the nasi is not emphasized, because acumen and scholarship prevailed in the schoolhouse, and there was no desire to let old precedences (see Eduyot) come to the fore again. Even the Mishnah contains some additions from the time of the Amoraim (see, for example, iv.2, where a gap must be filled from the Tosefta).
See also
- Rosh HashanahRosh HashanahRosh Hashanah , , is the Jewish New Year. It is the first of the High Holy Days or Yamim Nora'im which occur in the autumn...
(the festival) - TalmudTalmudThe Talmud is a central text of mainstream Judaism. It takes the form of a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, philosophy, customs and history....
- Rosh Hashanah text in Hebrew