Roundup
Encyclopedia
Roundup is the brand name of a systemic, broad-spectrum herbicide
produced by the U.S.
company Monsanto, and contains the active ingredient glyphosate. Glyphosate is the most widely used herbicide in the USA, and Roundup has been the number one selling herbicide worldwide since at least 1980. As of 2009, sales of Roundup herbicides represent about 10% of Monsanto's revenue due to competition from Chinese producers of other glyphosate-based herbicides; the overall Roundup line of products (which includes GM
seeds) represents about half of Monsanto's yearly revenue.
Monsanto developed and patent
ed the glyphosate molecule in the 1970s, and marketed Roundup from 1973. It retained exclusive rights in the US until its US patent expired in September, 2000, and maintained a predominant marketshare in countries where the patent expired earlier.
The main active ingredient
of Roundup is the isopropylamine salt
of glyphosate. Another important ingredient of Roundup is the surfactant
POEA (polyethoxylated tallow amine
), which is known for its toxicity in wildlife. It increases herbicide penetration in plant and animal cells.
Several weed species, known as superweeds, have developed Roundup resistance largely because of repeated exposure.
Monsanto also produces seeds which grow into plants genetically engineered
to be tolerant to glyphosate, which are known as Roundup Ready crops. The genes contained in these seeds are patented. Such crops allow farmers to use glyphosate as a post-emergence herbicide against most broadleaf and cereal weeds. Soy was the first Roundup Ready crop, and was produced at Monsanto's Agracetus
Campus located in Middleton, Wisconsin
.
(EPA); its main active ingredient, glyphosate, received EPA Toxicity Class
of III for oral and inhalation exposure.
Beyond the glyphosate salts content, commercial formulations of Roundup contain surfactant
s, which vary in nature and concentration. As a result, human poisoning with this herbicide is not with the main active ingredient alone, but with complex and variable mixtures.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) considers glyphosate to be relatively low in toxicity, and without carcinogenic or teratagenic effects. The EPA considered a "worst case" dietary risk model of an individual eating a lifetime of food entirely from glyphosate-sprayed fields, and with residue levels remaining at their maximum levels, and concluded no adverse effects would exist under these conditions.
A 2000 review concluded that "under present and expected conditions of new use, there is no potential for Roundup herbicide to pose a health risk to humans". The 2000 review has been criticized because it reviewed mostly experiments in which glyphosate and POEA were used alone, not as a mixture as in Roundup, and for only one or two years. They did not review toxicity studies of Roundup treatments (as a mixture) in rats or rabbits lasting more than 22 days and Roundup's potential as an endocrine disruptor was not assessed with a Roundup mixture at all.
A 2008 scientific study has shown that Roundup formulations and metabolic products cause the death of human embryonic, placental, and umbilical cells in vitro, even at low concentrations. The effects were not proportional to the main active ingredient concentrations (glyphosate), but dependent on the nature of the adjuvants used in the Roundup formulation.
Deliberate ingestion of Roundup herbicide in quantities ranging from 85 to 200 ml has resulted in death
within hours of ingestion, although it has also been ingested in quantities as large as 500 ml with only mild or moderate symptoms following ingestion. There is a reasonable correlation between the amount of Roundup ingested and the likelihood of serious systemic sequelae or death. Ingestion of >85 mL of the concentrated formulation is likely to cause significant toxicity in adults. Gastrointestinal corrosive effects, with mouth, throat and epigastric pain and dysphagia are common. Renal and hepatic impairment are also frequent and usually reflect reduced organ perfusion. Respiratory distress, impaired consciousness, pulmonary oedema, infiltration on chest x-ray, shock, arrythmias, renal failure requiring haemodialysis, metabolic acidosis and hyperkalaemia may occur in severe cases. Bradycardia and ventricular arrhythmias often present prior to death. Dermal exposure to ready-to-use glyphosate formulations can cause irritation, and photo-contact dermatitis has been reported occasionally; these effects are probably due to the preservative Proxel (benzisothiazolin-3-one).Inhalation is a minor route of exposure, but spray mist may cause oral or nasal discomfort, an unpleasant taste in the mouth, tingling and throat irritation. Eye exposure may lead to mild conjunctivitis, and superficial corneal injury is possible if irrigation is delayed or inadequate.
Glyphosate is toxic to human skin cells, through causing oxidative damage; antioxidants such as Vitamin C and E were found to provide some protection to such damage, leading the authors of the study to recommend that these chemicals be added to formulations including glyphosate. Severe skin burns are very rare.
expression. Further studies demonstrated this was not caused by glyphosate but to surfactants used as inactive ingredients in Roundup formulations.
A 2005 in vitro study on human placental JEG3 cells concluded that the glyphosate disruption of aromatase
is facilitated by adjuvants of the Roundup formulation.
A 2009 in vitro experiment with glyphosate formulations on human liver HepG2
cells has observed endocrine disruption at sub-agricultural doses, where a Roundup formulation showed to be the most active formulation. The effects were more dependent on the formulation than on the glyphosate concentration.
A 2009 study on rats has found that Roundup is a potent endocrine disruptor causing disturbances in the reproductive development when the exposure was performed during the puberty period.
A 2005 study raised concerns over the effects of Roundup in transcription
.
A 2009 study on mice has found that a single intraperitoneal injection
of Roundup in concentration of 25 mg/kg caused chromosomal aberrations and induction of micronuclei
.
A 2009 in vitro experiment with glyphosate formulations on human liver cells has observed DNA damages at sub-agricultural doses, where a Roundup formulation showed to be the most active formulation. The effects were more dependent on the formulation than on the glyphosate concentration.
and aquatic invertebrates are more sensitive to Roundup than terrestrial organisms. Glyphosate is generally less persistent in water than in soil, with 12 to 60 day persistence observed in Canadian pond water, yet persistence of over a year have been observed in the sediments of ponds in Michigan and Oregon.
The EU classifies Roundup as R51/53 Toxic to aquatic organisms, may cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic environment.
Although Roundup is not registered for aquatic uses and studies of its effects on amphibians indicate it is toxic to them, scientists have found that it may wind up in small wetlands where tadpoles live, due to inadvertent spraying during its application. A recent study found that even at concentrations one-third of the maximum concentrations expected in nature, Roundup still killed up to 71 percent of tadpoles raised in outdoor tanks.
A 2010 study has found that long-term exposition to environmental relevant concentrations of a Roundup formulation causes metabolic disruption in the fish leporinus obtusidens
.
In soils, half lives vary from as little as 3 days at a site in Texas, to as much as 141 days at a site in Iowa. In addition, the glyphosate metabolite aminomethylphosphonic acid was shown to persist up to 2 years in Swedish forest soils.
A recent study concluded that certain amphibians may be at risk from glyphosate use. One study has shown an effect on growth and survival of earthworms. The results of this study are in conflict with other data, and have been criticized on methodological grounds. In other studies, nitrogen fixing bacteria have been impaired, and also crop plant susceptibility to disease has been increased.
Environmental and consumer rights campaigners brought a case in France in 2001 for presenting Roundup as biodegradable and claiming that it left the soil clean after use; glyphosate, Roundup's main ingredient, is classed by the European Union as "dangerous for the environment" and "toxic for aquatic organisms". In January 2007, Monsanto was convicted of false advertising. The result was confirmed in 2009.
from male rabbits". In the second incident of falsifying test results in 1991, the owner of the lab (Craven Labs), and three employees were indicted on 20 felony counts, the owner was sentenced to 5 years in prison and fined $50,000, the lab was fined 15.5 million dollars and ordered to pay 3.7 million dollars in restitution. Craven laboratories performed studies for 262 pesticide companies including Monsanto.
Monsanto has stated that the studies have been repeated, and that Roundup's EPA certification does not now use any studies from Craven Labs or IBT. Monsanto also said that the Craven Labs investigation was started by the EPA after a pesticide industry task force discovered irregularities.
The first documented cases of weed resistance to glyphosate were found in Australia, involving rigid ryegrass near Orange, New South Wales. Some farmers in the United States have expressed concern that weeds are now developing with glyphosate resistance, with 13 states now reporting resistance, and this poses a problem to many farmers, including cotton farmers, that are now heavily dependent on glyphosate to control weeds. Farmers associations are now reporting 103 biotypes of weeds within 63 weed species with herbicide resistance. This problem is likely to be exacerbated by the use of Roundup Ready crops. Fifteen weed species have been confirmed as resistant to glyphosate.
, commonly known as pigweed
, was found in Georgia and confirmed by a 2005 study. In 2005 resistance was also found in North Carolina.
Glyphosate resistance followed the widespread use of Roundup Ready crops, which lead to an unprecedented selection pressure to glyphosate.
The weed variation is now widespread in southeast US. Cases are also reported in Texas and Virginia.
(also known as hairy fleabane and buva) and Conyza canadensis
(known as horseweed or marestail), are other weed species that had lately developed glyphosate resistance. A 2008 study on the current situation of glyphosate resistance in South America concluded that "resistance evolution followed intense glyphosate use" and the utilization of glyphosate-resistant soybean crops is a factor encouraging increase in glyphosate use.
(Lolium) has occurred in most of the Australian agricultural area and other areas of the world. All cases of evolution of resistance to glyphosate in Australia were characterized by intensive use of the herbicide while no other effective weed control practices were used. Studies indicate that resistant ryegrass does not compete well against non-resistant plants and their numbers decrease when not grown under conditions of glyphosate application.
(Sorghum halepense) has occurred in Roundup Ready soybean culture in Argentina.
in 1998. Roundup Ready soybeans patent is due to expire in 2014. Current Roundup Ready crops include soy, maize
(corn), canola
, sugar beet
and cotton
, with wheat
and alfalfa
still under development. As of 2005, 87% of U.S. soybean fields were planted with glyphosate resistant varieties.
While the use of Roundup Ready crops has increased the usage of herbicides measured in pounds applied per acre, the use of Roundup Ready crops has changed the herbicide use profile away from atrazine
, metribuzin, and alachlor
which are more likely to be present in run off water.
An injunction in Center for Food Safety v. USDA in September, 2010 prevented farmers from planting Roundup Ready sugar beets across the United States until a remedial environmental impact report could be filed, prompting some fear of a sugar shortage.
(EPSPS: EC 2.5.1.19, 3-phosphoshikimate 1-carboxyvinyltransferase; 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthetase; phosphoenolpyruvate:3-phosphoshikimate 5-O-(1-carboxyvinyl)-transferase
) that is resistant to glyphosate inhibition. The version used in genetically modified crops was isolate
d from Agrobacterium
strain CP4 (CP4 EPSPS) that was resistant
to glyphosate. The CP4 EPSPS gene was cloned and inserted into soybeans. The CP4 EPSPS gene was engineered for plant expression by fusing
the 5' end of the gene to a chloroplast
transit peptide derived from the petunia
EPSPS. This transit peptide was used because it had shown previously an ability to deliver bacterial EPSPS to the chloroplasts of other plants. The plasmid
used to move the gene into soybeans was PV-GMGTO4. It contained three bacterial genes, two CP4 EPSPS genes, and a gene encoding beta-glucuronidase (GUS
) from Escherichia coli
as a marker. The DNA was injected into the soybeans using the particle acceleration method or gene gun
. Soybean cultivar A54O3 was used for the transformation
. The expression
of the GUS gene was used as the initial evidence of transformation. GUS expression was detected by a staining method in which the GUS enzyme converts a substrate
into a blue precipitate. Those plants that showed GUS expression were then taken and sprayed with glyphosate and their tolerance was tested over many generations.
government to spray Colombia
n coca
fields through Plan Colombia
. There are reports that widespread application of glyphosate in attempts to destroy coca crops in South America have resulted in the development of glyphosate-resistant strains of coca known as Boliviana negra
, which have been selectively bred
to be both "Roundup Ready" and larger and higher yielding than the original strains of the plant. However, there are no reports of glyphosate-resistant coca in the peer-reviewed literature. In addition, since spraying of herbicides is not permitted in Colombian national parks, this has encouraged coca growers to move into park areas, cutting down the natural vegetation, and establishing coca plantations within park lands.
In many Canadian cities Roundup use for cosmetic purposes is either banned or restricted.
Herbicide
Herbicides, also commonly known as weedkillers, are pesticides used to kill unwanted plants. Selective herbicides kill specific targets while leaving the desired crop relatively unharmed. Some of these act by interfering with the growth of the weed and are often synthetic "imitations" of plant...
produced by the U.S.
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
company Monsanto, and contains the active ingredient glyphosate. Glyphosate is the most widely used herbicide in the USA, and Roundup has been the number one selling herbicide worldwide since at least 1980. As of 2009, sales of Roundup herbicides represent about 10% of Monsanto's revenue due to competition from Chinese producers of other glyphosate-based herbicides; the overall Roundup line of products (which includes GM
Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification, is the direct human manipulation of an organism's genome using modern DNA technology. It involves the introduction of foreign DNA or synthetic genes into the organism of interest...
seeds) represents about half of Monsanto's yearly revenue.
Monsanto developed and patent
Patent
A patent is a form of intellectual property. It consists of a set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign state to an inventor or their assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for the public disclosure of an invention....
ed the glyphosate molecule in the 1970s, and marketed Roundup from 1973. It retained exclusive rights in the US until its US patent expired in September, 2000, and maintained a predominant marketshare in countries where the patent expired earlier.
The main active ingredient
Active ingredient
An active ingredient is the substance of a pharmaceutical drug or a pharmaceutical ingredient and bulk active in medicine; in pesticide formulations active substance may be used. Some medications and pesticide products may contain more than one active ingredient...
of Roundup is the isopropylamine salt
Salt
In chemistry, salts are ionic compounds that result from the neutralization reaction of an acid and a base. They are composed of cations and anions so that the product is electrically neutral...
of glyphosate. Another important ingredient of Roundup is the surfactant
Surfactant
Surfactants are compounds that lower the surface tension of a liquid, the interfacial tension between two liquids, or that between a liquid and a solid...
POEA (polyethoxylated tallow amine
Polyethoxylated tallow amine
Polyethoxylated tallow amine is a surfactant that enhances the activity of herbicides. It improves the solubility of many common herbicides in organic solvents, increasing their penetration of the waxy surfaces of plants. It may also interfere with the function of tadpole gills...
), which is known for its toxicity in wildlife. It increases herbicide penetration in plant and animal cells.
Several weed species, known as superweeds, have developed Roundup resistance largely because of repeated exposure.
Monsanto also produces seeds which grow into plants genetically engineered
Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification, is the direct human manipulation of an organism's genome using modern DNA technology. It involves the introduction of foreign DNA or synthetic genes into the organism of interest...
to be tolerant to glyphosate, which are known as Roundup Ready crops. The genes contained in these seeds are patented. Such crops allow farmers to use glyphosate as a post-emergence herbicide against most broadleaf and cereal weeds. Soy was the first Roundup Ready crop, and was produced at Monsanto's Agracetus
Agracetus
The Agracetus Campus of Monsanto Company is the world's largest soybean transformation laboratory. It has over 21,700 employees worldwide, and an annual revenue of USD$11.365 billion reported for 2008....
Campus located in Middleton, Wisconsin
Middleton, Wisconsin
Middleton is a city in Dane County, Wisconsin, United States. It is a western suburb of the state capital, Madison but it was actually founded before Madison. It got its name from Middletown, Connecticut; the "w" being dropped was due to a paper work error made by long time historian Edward Kromrey...
.
Regulation
Roundup commercial formulations were never submitted to test by the United States Environmental Protection AgencyUnited States Environmental Protection Agency
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is an agency of the federal government of the United States charged with protecting human health and the environment, by writing and enforcing regulations based on laws passed by Congress...
(EPA); its main active ingredient, glyphosate, received EPA Toxicity Class
Toxicity Class
Toxicity Class refers to a classification system for pesticides that has been created by a national or international government-related or -sponsored organization...
of III for oral and inhalation exposure.
Beyond the glyphosate salts content, commercial formulations of Roundup contain surfactant
Surfactant
Surfactants are compounds that lower the surface tension of a liquid, the interfacial tension between two liquids, or that between a liquid and a solid...
s, which vary in nature and concentration. As a result, human poisoning with this herbicide is not with the main active ingredient alone, but with complex and variable mixtures.
Toxicity
Laboratory studies have shown teratagenic effects of Roundup in animals . These reports have proposed that the teratogenic effects are caused by impaired retinoic acid signaling. A 2011 report by Earth Open Source asserts that the Roundup active ingredient - glyphosate - has caused birth defects in laboratory animal tests. News reports have supposed that regulators have been aware of these studies since 1980.The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) considers glyphosate to be relatively low in toxicity, and without carcinogenic or teratagenic effects. The EPA considered a "worst case" dietary risk model of an individual eating a lifetime of food entirely from glyphosate-sprayed fields, and with residue levels remaining at their maximum levels, and concluded no adverse effects would exist under these conditions.
A 2000 review concluded that "under present and expected conditions of new use, there is no potential for Roundup herbicide to pose a health risk to humans". The 2000 review has been criticized because it reviewed mostly experiments in which glyphosate and POEA were used alone, not as a mixture as in Roundup, and for only one or two years. They did not review toxicity studies of Roundup treatments (as a mixture) in rats or rabbits lasting more than 22 days and Roundup's potential as an endocrine disruptor was not assessed with a Roundup mixture at all.
A 2008 scientific study has shown that Roundup formulations and metabolic products cause the death of human embryonic, placental, and umbilical cells in vitro, even at low concentrations. The effects were not proportional to the main active ingredient concentrations (glyphosate), but dependent on the nature of the adjuvants used in the Roundup formulation.
Deliberate ingestion of Roundup herbicide in quantities ranging from 85 to 200 ml has resulted in death
Death
Death is the permanent termination of the biological functions that sustain a living organism. Phenomena which commonly bring about death include old age, predation, malnutrition, disease, and accidents or trauma resulting in terminal injury....
within hours of ingestion, although it has also been ingested in quantities as large as 500 ml with only mild or moderate symptoms following ingestion. There is a reasonable correlation between the amount of Roundup ingested and the likelihood of serious systemic sequelae or death. Ingestion of >85 mL of the concentrated formulation is likely to cause significant toxicity in adults. Gastrointestinal corrosive effects, with mouth, throat and epigastric pain and dysphagia are common. Renal and hepatic impairment are also frequent and usually reflect reduced organ perfusion. Respiratory distress, impaired consciousness, pulmonary oedema, infiltration on chest x-ray, shock, arrythmias, renal failure requiring haemodialysis, metabolic acidosis and hyperkalaemia may occur in severe cases. Bradycardia and ventricular arrhythmias often present prior to death. Dermal exposure to ready-to-use glyphosate formulations can cause irritation, and photo-contact dermatitis has been reported occasionally; these effects are probably due to the preservative Proxel (benzisothiazolin-3-one).Inhalation is a minor route of exposure, but spray mist may cause oral or nasal discomfort, an unpleasant taste in the mouth, tingling and throat irritation. Eye exposure may lead to mild conjunctivitis, and superficial corneal injury is possible if irrigation is delayed or inadequate.
Glyphosate is toxic to human skin cells, through causing oxidative damage; antioxidants such as Vitamin C and E were found to provide some protection to such damage, leading the authors of the study to recommend that these chemicals be added to formulations including glyphosate. Severe skin burns are very rare.
Endocrine disruptor
A 2000 in vitro study on mouse MA-10 cells concluded that Roundup inhibited progesterone production by disrupting StAR proteinSteroidogenic acute regulatory protein
The steroidogenic acute regulatory protein, commonly referred to as StAR , is a transport protein that regulates cholesterol transfer within the mitochondria, which is the rate-limiting step in the production of steroid hormones...
expression. Further studies demonstrated this was not caused by glyphosate but to surfactants used as inactive ingredients in Roundup formulations.
A 2005 in vitro study on human placental JEG3 cells concluded that the glyphosate disruption of aromatase
Aromatase
Aromatase is an enzyme responsible for a key step in the biosynthesis of estrogens. It is a member of the cytochrome P450 superfamily , which are monooxygenases that catalyze many reactions involved in steroidogenesis. In particular, aromatase is responsible for the aromatization of androgens into...
is facilitated by adjuvants of the Roundup formulation.
A 2009 in vitro experiment with glyphosate formulations on human liver HepG2
Hep G2
Hep G2 is a human liver carcinoma cell line.-Technical reference:ATCC No. HB-8065 Hep G2 Hep G2 is a perpetual cell line which was derived from the liver tissue of a 15 year old Caucasian American male with a well differentiated hepatocellular carcinoma...
cells has observed endocrine disruption at sub-agricultural doses, where a Roundup formulation showed to be the most active formulation. The effects were more dependent on the formulation than on the glyphosate concentration.
A 2009 study on rats has found that Roundup is a potent endocrine disruptor causing disturbances in the reproductive development when the exposure was performed during the puberty period.
Genetic damage
A 1998 study on mice concluded that Roundup is able to cause genetic damage. The authors concluded that the damage was "not related to the active ingredient, but to another component of the herbicide mixture".A 2005 study raised concerns over the effects of Roundup in transcription
Transcription (genetics)
Transcription is the process of creating a complementary RNA copy of a sequence of DNA. Both RNA and DNA are nucleic acids, which use base pairs of nucleotides as a complementary language that can be converted back and forth from DNA to RNA by the action of the correct enzymes...
.
A 2009 study on mice has found that a single intraperitoneal injection
Intraperitoneal injection
Intraperitoneal injection or IP injection is the injection of a substance into the peritoneum . IP injection is more often applied to animals than humans...
of Roundup in concentration of 25 mg/kg caused chromosomal aberrations and induction of micronuclei
Micronucleus test
A micronucleus test is a test used in toxicological screening for potential genotoxic compounds. There are two major versions of this test, one in vivo and the other In vitro. The in vivo test normally uses mouse bone marrow or mouse peripheral blood. Micronuclei were first used to quantify...
.
A 2009 in vitro experiment with glyphosate formulations on human liver cells has observed DNA damages at sub-agricultural doses, where a Roundup formulation showed to be the most active formulation. The effects were more dependent on the formulation than on the glyphosate concentration.
Ecologic effects
A 2000 review of the toxicological data on Roundup concluded that "for terrestrial uses of Roundup minimal acute and chronic risk was predicted for potentially exposed nontarget organisms". It also concluded that there were some risks to aquatic organisms exposed to Roundup in shallow water.Toxicity
A 2009 study has concluded that while physiological pH decreases glyphosate uptake in animal cells, Roundup formulation contains surfactants that increase membrane permeability allowing cellular uptake at physiological pH.Aquatic effects
FishFish
Fish are a paraphyletic group of organisms that consist of all gill-bearing aquatic vertebrate animals that lack limbs with digits. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous and bony fish, as well as various extinct related groups...
and aquatic invertebrates are more sensitive to Roundup than terrestrial organisms. Glyphosate is generally less persistent in water than in soil, with 12 to 60 day persistence observed in Canadian pond water, yet persistence of over a year have been observed in the sediments of ponds in Michigan and Oregon.
The EU classifies Roundup as R51/53 Toxic to aquatic organisms, may cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic environment.
Although Roundup is not registered for aquatic uses and studies of its effects on amphibians indicate it is toxic to them, scientists have found that it may wind up in small wetlands where tadpoles live, due to inadvertent spraying during its application. A recent study found that even at concentrations one-third of the maximum concentrations expected in nature, Roundup still killed up to 71 percent of tadpoles raised in outdoor tanks.
A 2010 study has found that long-term exposition to environmental relevant concentrations of a Roundup formulation causes metabolic disruption in the fish leporinus obtusidens
Leporinus obtusidens
Leporinus obtusidens is a South American species of ray-finned fish that inhabits the basins of the Paraná River and the Río de la Plata, the Uruguay River, and the São Francisco River...
.
Environmental degradation and effects
When glyphosate comes into contact with the soil, it can be rapidly bound to soil particles and be inactivated. Unbound glyphosate can be degraded by bacteria. Glyphosphate has been shown to increase the infection rate of wheat by fusarium head blight in fields that have been treated with glyphosphate. A 2009 study using a RoundUp formulation has concluded that absorption into plants delays subsequent soil-degradation, and can increase glyphosate persistence in soil from two to six times.In soils, half lives vary from as little as 3 days at a site in Texas, to as much as 141 days at a site in Iowa. In addition, the glyphosate metabolite aminomethylphosphonic acid was shown to persist up to 2 years in Swedish forest soils.
A recent study concluded that certain amphibians may be at risk from glyphosate use. One study has shown an effect on growth and survival of earthworms. The results of this study are in conflict with other data, and have been criticized on methodological grounds. In other studies, nitrogen fixing bacteria have been impaired, and also crop plant susceptibility to disease has been increased.
False advertising
In 1996, Monsanto was accused of false and misleading advertising of glyphosate products, prompting a law suit by the New York State attorney general. Monsanto had made claims that its spray-on glyphosate based herbicides, including Roundup, were safer than table salt and "practically non-toxic" to mammals, birds, and fish.Environmental and consumer rights campaigners brought a case in France in 2001 for presenting Roundup as biodegradable and claiming that it left the soil clean after use; glyphosate, Roundup's main ingredient, is classed by the European Union as "dangerous for the environment" and "toxic for aquatic organisms". In January 2007, Monsanto was convicted of false advertising. The result was confirmed in 2009.
Scientific fraud
On two occasions, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has caught scientists deliberately falsifying test results at research laboratories hired by Monsanto to study glyphosate. In the first incident involving Industrial Biotest Laboratories, an EPA reviewer stated after finding "routine falsification of data" that it was "hard to believe the scientific integrity of the studies when they said they took specimens of the uterusUterus
The uterus or womb is a major female hormone-responsive reproductive sex organ of most mammals including humans. One end, the cervix, opens into the vagina, while the other is connected to one or both fallopian tubes, depending on the species...
from male rabbits". In the second incident of falsifying test results in 1991, the owner of the lab (Craven Labs), and three employees were indicted on 20 felony counts, the owner was sentenced to 5 years in prison and fined $50,000, the lab was fined 15.5 million dollars and ordered to pay 3.7 million dollars in restitution. Craven laboratories performed studies for 262 pesticide companies including Monsanto.
Monsanto has stated that the studies have been repeated, and that Roundup's EPA certification does not now use any studies from Craven Labs or IBT. Monsanto also said that the Craven Labs investigation was started by the EPA after a pesticide industry task force discovered irregularities.
Difference between regulatory registered and commercialized formulations
In November 2009, a French environment group (MDRGF) accused Monsanto of using chemicals in Roundup formulations not disclosed to the country's regulatory bodies, and demanded the removal of those products from the market.Resistance to Roundup
Resistance evolves after a weed population has been subjected to intense selection pressure in the form of repeated use of a single herbicide. These weeds resistant to the herbicide have been called "Superweeds". In the US 7 to 10 million acres (40,468.6 km²) of soil is afflicted by those superweeds.The first documented cases of weed resistance to glyphosate were found in Australia, involving rigid ryegrass near Orange, New South Wales. Some farmers in the United States have expressed concern that weeds are now developing with glyphosate resistance, with 13 states now reporting resistance, and this poses a problem to many farmers, including cotton farmers, that are now heavily dependent on glyphosate to control weeds. Farmers associations are now reporting 103 biotypes of weeds within 63 weed species with herbicide resistance. This problem is likely to be exacerbated by the use of Roundup Ready crops. Fifteen weed species have been confirmed as resistant to glyphosate.
Palmer amaranth
In 2004, a glyphosate-resistant variation of palmer amaranthAmaranthus palmeri
Amaranthus palmeri is a species of edible flowering plant in the amaranth genus. It has several common names, including Palmer's amaranth, Palmer amaranth, Palmer's pigweed, and carelessweed. It is native to most of the southern half of North America. Populations in the eastern United States are...
, commonly known as pigweed
Pigweed
Pigweed can mean any of a number of weedy plants which may be used as pig fodder:* Amaranthus species** Amaranthus palmeri, the 'pigweed' resistant to glyphosate in the US southeast.* Chenopodium album * Portulaca species...
, was found in Georgia and confirmed by a 2005 study. In 2005 resistance was also found in North Carolina.
Glyphosate resistance followed the widespread use of Roundup Ready crops, which lead to an unprecedented selection pressure to glyphosate.
The weed variation is now widespread in southeast US. Cases are also reported in Texas and Virginia.
Conyza biotypes
Conyza bonariensisConyza bonariensis
Conyza bonariensis is a species of Conyza, found throughout the tropics and subtropics as a weed; its precise native origin is unknown, but most likely Central America or South America...
(also known as hairy fleabane and buva) and Conyza canadensis
Conyza canadensis
Conyza canadensis is an annual plant native throughout most of North America and Central America. Common names include Horseweed, Canadian Horseweed, Canadian Fleabane, Coltstail, Marestail and Butterweed.It is an annual plant growing to 1.5 m tall, with sparsely hairy stems...
(known as horseweed or marestail), are other weed species that had lately developed glyphosate resistance. A 2008 study on the current situation of glyphosate resistance in South America concluded that "resistance evolution followed intense glyphosate use" and the utilization of glyphosate-resistant soybean crops is a factor encouraging increase in glyphosate use.
Ryegrass
Glyphosate resistant ryegrassRyegrass
Ryegrass is a genus of nine species of tufted grasses in the Pooideae subfamily of the Poaceae family. Also called tares , these plants are native to Europe, Asia and northern Africa, but are...
(Lolium) has occurred in most of the Australian agricultural area and other areas of the world. All cases of evolution of resistance to glyphosate in Australia were characterized by intensive use of the herbicide while no other effective weed control practices were used. Studies indicate that resistant ryegrass does not compete well against non-resistant plants and their numbers decrease when not grown under conditions of glyphosate application.
Johnsongrass
Glyphosate resistant Johnson grassJohnson grass
Sorghum halepense, commonly called Johnsongrass, is a plant in the grass family, Poaceae, native to the Mediterranean region, but growing throughout Europe and the Middle East. The plant has been introduced to all continents except Antarctica and most larger islands and archipelagos...
(Sorghum halepense) has occurred in Roundup Ready soybean culture in Argentina.
Genetically modified crops
In 1996, genetically modified Roundup Ready soybeans resistant to Roundup became commercially available, followed by Roundup Ready cornMaize
Maize known in many English-speaking countries as corn or mielie/mealie, is a grain domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mesoamerica in prehistoric times. The leafy stalk produces ears which contain seeds called kernels. Though technically a grain, maize kernels are used in cooking as a vegetable...
in 1998. Roundup Ready soybeans patent is due to expire in 2014. Current Roundup Ready crops include soy, maize
Maize
Maize known in many English-speaking countries as corn or mielie/mealie, is a grain domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mesoamerica in prehistoric times. The leafy stalk produces ears which contain seeds called kernels. Though technically a grain, maize kernels are used in cooking as a vegetable...
(corn), canola
Canola
Canola refers to a cultivar of either Rapeseed or Field Mustard . Its seeds are used to produce edible oil suitable for consumption by humans and livestock. The oil is also suitable for use as biodiesel.Originally, Canola was bred naturally from rapeseed in Canada by Keith Downey and Baldur R...
, sugar beet
Sugar beet
Sugar beet, a cultivated plant of Beta vulgaris, is a plant whose tuber contains a high concentration of sucrose. It is grown commercially for sugar production. Sugar beets and other B...
and cotton
Cotton
Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective capsule, around the seeds of cotton plants of the genus Gossypium. The fiber is almost pure cellulose. The botanical purpose of cotton fiber is to aid in seed dispersal....
, with wheat
Wheat
Wheat is a cereal grain, originally from the Levant region of the Near East, but now cultivated worldwide. In 2007 world production of wheat was 607 million tons, making it the third most-produced cereal after maize and rice...
and alfalfa
Alfalfa
Alfalfa is a flowering plant in the pea family Fabaceae cultivated as an important forage crop in the US, Canada, Argentina, France, Australia, the Middle East, South Africa, and many other countries. It is known as lucerne in the UK, France, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand, and known as...
still under development. As of 2005, 87% of U.S. soybean fields were planted with glyphosate resistant varieties.
While the use of Roundup Ready crops has increased the usage of herbicides measured in pounds applied per acre, the use of Roundup Ready crops has changed the herbicide use profile away from atrazine
Atrazine
Atrazine, 2-chloro-4--6--s-triazine, an organic compound consisting of an s-triazine-ring is a widely used herbicide. Its use is controversial due to widespread contamination in drinking water and its associations with birth defects and menstrual problems when consumed by humans at concentrations...
, metribuzin, and alachlor
Alachlor
Alachlor is an herbicide from the chloroacetanilide family. Its mode of action is elongase inhibition, and inhibition of geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate cyclisation enzymes, part of the gibberellin pathway.-Uses:...
which are more likely to be present in run off water.
An injunction in Center for Food Safety v. USDA in September, 2010 prevented farmers from planting Roundup Ready sugar beets across the United States until a remedial environmental impact report could be filed, prompting some fear of a sugar shortage.
Genetic engineering
Some microorganisms have a version of 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthaseSynthase
In biochemistry, a synthase is an enzyme that catalyses a synthesis process.Following the EC number classification, they belong to the group of ligases, with lyases catalysing the reverse reaction....
(EPSPS: EC 2.5.1.19, 3-phosphoshikimate 1-carboxyvinyltransferase; 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthetase; phosphoenolpyruvate:3-phosphoshikimate 5-O-(1-carboxyvinyl)-transferase
Transferase
In biochemistry, a transferase is an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a functional group from one molecule to another . For example, an enzyme that catalyzed this reaction would be a transferase:In this example, A would be the donor, and B would be the acceptor...
) that is resistant to glyphosate inhibition. The version used in genetically modified crops was isolate
Isolate
Isolate may refer to:* Genetic isolate, a population of organisms that has little genetic mixing with other organisms of the same species* Isolate , 2007* Isolate , 1992...
d from Agrobacterium
Agrobacterium
Agrobacterium is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria established by H. J. Conn that uses horizontal gene transfer to cause tumors in plants. Agrobacterium tumefaciens is the most commonly studied species in this genus...
strain CP4 (CP4 EPSPS) that was resistant
Pesticide resistance
Pesticide resistance is the adaptation of pest population targeted by a pesticide resulting in decreased susceptibility to that chemical. In other words, pests develop a resistance to a chemical through natural selection: the most resistant organisms are the ones to survive and pass on their...
to glyphosate. The CP4 EPSPS gene was cloned and inserted into soybeans. The CP4 EPSPS gene was engineered for plant expression by fusing
Fusing
For the art, see stained glass fusing.Fusing is a type of manufacturing process for joining or terminating electrical magnet wire, that is coated with a varnish type insulation, to itself or some type of electrical terminal, without prior removal of the insulation. During the fusing process, the...
the 5' end of the gene to a chloroplast
Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and other eukaryotic organisms that conduct photosynthesis. Chloroplasts capture light energy to conserve free energy in the form of ATP and reduce NADP to NADPH through a complex set of processes called photosynthesis.Chloroplasts are green...
transit peptide derived from the petunia
Petunia
Petunia is a widely cultivated genus of flowering plants of South American origin, closely related with tobacco, cape gooseberries, tomatoes, deadly nightshades, potatoes and chili peppers; in the family Solanaceae. The popular flower derived its name from French, which took the word petun, meaning...
EPSPS. This transit peptide was used because it had shown previously an ability to deliver bacterial EPSPS to the chloroplasts of other plants. The plasmid
Plasmid
In microbiology and genetics, a plasmid is a DNA molecule that is separate from, and can replicate independently of, the chromosomal DNA. They are double-stranded and, in many cases, circular...
used to move the gene into soybeans was PV-GMGTO4. It contained three bacterial genes, two CP4 EPSPS genes, and a gene encoding beta-glucuronidase (GUS
GUS
GUS or Gus may refer to one of the following.Gus is a masculine name, or diminutive for Augustine, Augustus, Angus or August, and other names .*Gus Adams, American ice hockey player...
) from Escherichia coli
Escherichia coli
Escherichia coli is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that is commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms . Most E. coli strains are harmless, but some serotypes can cause serious food poisoning in humans, and are occasionally responsible for product recalls...
as a marker. The DNA was injected into the soybeans using the particle acceleration method or gene gun
Gene gun
A gene gun or a biolistic particle delivery system, originally designed for plant transformation, is a device for injecting cells with genetic information. The payload is an elemental particle of a heavy metal coated with plasmid DNA...
. Soybean cultivar A54O3 was used for the transformation
Transformation (genetics)
In molecular biology transformation is the genetic alteration of a cell resulting from the direct uptake, incorporation and expression of exogenous genetic material from its surroundings and taken up through the cell membrane. Transformation occurs naturally in some species of bacteria, but it can...
. The expression
Gene expression
Gene expression is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product. These products are often proteins, but in non-protein coding genes such as ribosomal RNA , transfer RNA or small nuclear RNA genes, the product is a functional RNA...
of the GUS gene was used as the initial evidence of transformation. GUS expression was detected by a staining method in which the GUS enzyme converts a substrate
Substrate (biochemistry)
In biochemistry, a substrate is a molecule upon which an enzyme acts. Enzymes catalyze chemical reactions involving the substrate. In the case of a single substrate, the substrate binds with the enzyme active site, and an enzyme-substrate complex is formed. The substrate is transformed into one or...
into a blue precipitate. Those plants that showed GUS expression were then taken and sprayed with glyphosate and their tolerance was tested over many generations.
Productivity claims
In 1999, a review of Roundup Ready soybean crops found that, compared to the top conventional varieties, they had a 6.7% lower yield. This so called "yield drag" follows the same pattern observed when other traits are introduced into soybeans by conventional breeding. Monsanto claims later patented varieties yield 7-11% higher than their poorly performing initial varieties, closer to those of conventional farming, although the company refrains from citing actual yields. Monsanto's 2006 application to USDA states that RR2 (mon89788) yields 1.6 bu less than A3244, the conventional variety that the trait is inserted into.Tradenames
The Roundup trademark is registered with the US Patent Office and still extant. However, glyphosate is no longer under patent, so similar products use it as an active ingredient.Other uses
Glyphosate is one of a number of herbicides used by the United StatesUnited States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
government to spray Colombia
Colombia
Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia , is a unitary constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments. The country is located in northwestern South America, bordered to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; to the north by the Caribbean Sea; to the...
n coca
Coca
Coca, Erythroxylum coca, is a plant in the family Erythroxylaceae, native to western South America. The plant plays a significant role in many traditional Andean cultures...
fields through Plan Colombia
Plan Colombia
The term Plan Colombia is most often used to refer to U.S. legislation aimed at curbing drug smuggling and combating a left-wing insurgency by supporting different activities in Colombia....
. There are reports that widespread application of glyphosate in attempts to destroy coca crops in South America have resulted in the development of glyphosate-resistant strains of coca known as Boliviana negra
Boliviana negra
Also known as supercoca or la millionaria, Boliviana Negra is a relatively new form of coca that is resistant to herbicide Roundup, or the isopropylamine salt of glyphosate. The coca plant is the source of the addictive stimulant cocaine, one of the most widely consumed illegal drugs in the world...
, which have been selectively bred
Selective breeding
Selective breeding is the process of breeding plants and animals for particular genetic traits. Typically, strains that are selectively bred are domesticated, and the breeding is sometimes done by a professional breeder. Bred animals are known as breeds, while bred plants are known as varieties,...
to be both "Roundup Ready" and larger and higher yielding than the original strains of the plant. However, there are no reports of glyphosate-resistant coca in the peer-reviewed literature. In addition, since spraying of herbicides is not permitted in Colombian national parks, this has encouraged coca growers to move into park areas, cutting down the natural vegetation, and establishing coca plantations within park lands.
Cosmetic purposes
In many cities, Roundup is sprayed along the sidewalks and streets, as well as crevices in between pavement where weeds often grow. However, up to 24% of the glyphosate from a Roundup formulation applied to hard surfaces can be run off by water. Glyphosate contamination of surface water is highly attributed to urban use.In many Canadian cities Roundup use for cosmetic purposes is either banned or restricted.
Further reading
- Baccara, Mariagiovanna, et al. Monsanto's Roundup, NYU Stern School of Business: August 2001, Revised July 14, 2003.
- Pease W S et al. (1993) Preventing pesticide-related illness in California agriculture: Strategies and priorities. Environmental Health Policy Program Report. Berkeley, CA: University of CaliforniaUniversity of CaliforniaThe University of California is a public university system in the U.S. state of California. Under the California Master Plan for Higher Education, the University of California is a part of the state's three-tier public higher education system, which also includes the California State University...
. School of Public Health. California Policy Seminar. - Marie-Monique Robin. (2008) Le monde selon Monsanto. Arte Editions (book written in French). ISBN 978-2-7071-4918-3. An overview of Monsanto products: PCBPolychlorinated biphenylPolychlorinated biphenyls are a class of organic compounds with 2 to 10 chlorine atoms attached to biphenyl, which is a molecule composed of two benzene rings. The chemical formula for PCBs is C12H10-xClx...
, Dioxine, Roundup, Bovine Growth Hormone, OGM. - Wang Y, Jaw C and Chen Y (1994) Accumulation of 2,4-D and glyphosate in fish and water hyaacinth. Water Air Soil Pollute. 74:397-403