Samuel of Nehardea
Encyclopedia
Samuel of Nehardea or Samuel bar Abba (Hebrew: שמואל or שמואל ירחינאה) was a Jewish Talmud
ist who lived in Babylonia
, known as an Amora
of the first generation; son of Abba bar Abba
and head of the Yeshiva
at Nehardea
. He was a teacher of halakha
, judge
, physician
, and astronomer
. He was born about 165 at Nehardea, in Babylonia and died there about 257. As in the case of many other great men, a number of legendary stories are connected with his birth (comp. Halakot Gedolot, Giṭṭin, end; Tos. Ḳid. s.v. ). In Talmud
ic texts, Samuel is frequently associated with Abba Arika
, with whom he debated on many major issues. He was the teacher of Rabbi Judah ben Ezekiel
. From the little biographical information gleaned from the Talmud, we know that Samuel was never ordained as a Tanna, that he was very precise with his words (Kidd. 70), and that he had a special affinity for astronomy
: one of his best known sayings was that "The paths of heaven are as clear to me as the pathways of Nehardea."
designation Abuh di-Shemu'el ("father of Samuel"), was a silk
-merchant
. R. Judah ben Bathyra
ordered a silken garment from him, but refused to take it after Abba had procured it, and when the latter asked him the reason of his refusal, R. Judah answered, "The commission was only a spoken word, and was not sufficient to make the transaction binding." Abba thereupon said, "Is the word of a sage not a better guarantee than his money?" "You are right," said R. Judah; "and because you lay so much stress upon a given word you shall have the good fortune of having a son who shall be like the prophet Samuel, and whose word all Israel will recognize as true." Soon afterward a son was born to Abba, whom he named Samuel (Midr. Shemu'el, x. [ed. Martin Buber
, p. 39a]).
v. 30a; Yer. Peah viii. 21b). His first teacher was an otherwise unknown man, and Samuel, who knew more about a certain legal question than did his teacher, would not submit to ill treatment by him (Ḥul. 107b). Then Samuel's father, who was himself a prominent teacher of the Law, recognized as such even by Rab (Abba Arika; Ket. 51b), undertook to instruct the boy. As he seems to have been unequal to this task he sent him to Nisibis
to attend the school of the rabbi who had predicted the boy's birth, that he might there acquire a knowledge of the Law ("Tanya," Hilkot "Abel," ed. Horowitz, p. 137, quoted from Yer.; comp. also Mordecai on M. Ḳ. 889). Samuel seems to have remained only a short time at Nisibis. On his return to Nehardea he studied under Levi b. Sisi, who was in Babylon before the death of Judah ha-Nasi (see A. Krochmal in "He-Ḥaluẓ," i. 69), and who exerted a great influence on Samuel's development. Samuel made such rapid progress and became so proficient in his studies that he soon associated as an equal with his teacher (Hoffmann, "Mar Samuel," p. 70).
had gone to Palestine there was no one in Babylon with whom he could have studied. According to an account in the Talmud (B. M. 85b), which Rapoport declares to be a later addition ("'Erek Millin," pp. 10, 222), but which may have some basis in fact, Samuel is said to have cured R. Judah ha-Nasi I of an affliction of the eyes. Although Samuel was at that time too young to study directly under R. Judah, he studied under the pupils of the patriarch, especially with Hanina bar Hama
(comp. Hoffmann, l.c. pp. 71–73; Fessler, "Mar Samuel, der Bedeutendste Amora," p. 14, note 1).
After having acquired a great store of knowledge in the Land of Israel
, his studies there including the Mishnah
edited by R. Judah ha-Nasi as well as the other collections of traditional lore, Samuel left the Holy Land
, probably with his father, and returned to his native city. His reputation as a teacher of the Law having preceded him, many pupils gathered about him. As he was especially well versed in civil law
, the exilarch Mar Ukba
, who was his pupil, appointed him judge of the bet din at Nehardea, where he was associated with his friend the learned and clever Karna. This court was regarded at that time as the foremost institution of its kind. In Palestine, as well as in Babylon, Samuel and Ḳarna were called the "judges of the Diaspora" (dayyane Golah; Sanhedrin
17b). Upon the death of R. Shila, the director of the Academy ("resh sidra") of Nehardea, Mar Samuel was appointed to the office, after it had been refused by Rab, who would not accept any post of honor at Nehardea, Samuel's home (Letter of Sherira Gaon
, in Neubauer, "M. J. C." p. 28). The Academy of Nehardea entered upon a brilliant phase of its existence under Samuel's directorate, and, with the academy founded by Rab at Sura
, enjoyed a high general reputation.
and Mar Samuel at Nehardea established the intellectual independence of Babylonian Jewry. Young men taking up the study of the Law there were no longer obliged to go to Palestine, since they had the foremost teachers at home. Babylon now came to be regarded, in a sense, as a second Holy Land. Samuel taught, "As it is forbidden to migrate from Palestine to Babylon, so is it forbidden to migrate from Babylon to other countries" (Ket. 111a). After Rab's death no new director was elected, and Rab's greatest pupil, R. Huna, who became president of the court of Sura, subordinated himself to Mar Samuel in every respect, asking his decision in every difficult religio-legal question (Giṭ. 66b, 89b; comp. Sanh. 17b; Tos. ib., s.v. , the phrase "be Rab" referring to R. Huna).
The Academy of Nehardea was now the only one in Babylon, and its director, Samuel, who survived Rab about ten years, was regarded as the highest authority by the Babylonian Jews. Even Rabbi Yochanan, the most prominent teacher in Palestine, and who at first looked upon Samuel merely as a colleague, became so convinced of his greatness, after Samuel had sent him a large number of responsa on important ritual laws, that he exclaimed, "I have a teacher in Babylon
" (Ḥul. 95b).
As a man, Mar Samuel was distinguished for his modesty, gentleness, and unselfishness, being always ready to subordinate his own interests to those of the community. He said: "A man may never exclude himself from the community, but must seek his welfare in that of society" (Berakhot
49b). He demanded seemly behavior from every one, saying that any improper conduct was punishable by law (Ḥag. 5a). One should help one's fellow man at the first signs of approaching difficulties, so as to prevent them, and not wait until he is in actual distress (ib.). In his solicitude for helpless orphan
s he imposed upon every court the task of acting as father
to them (Yeb. 67b; Giṭ. 37a, 52b); and he declared that a loan taken from an orphan was not canceled in the Sabbatical year, even if no prosbul had been made out for it (Giṭ. 36b-37a). He stored his grain until prices had risen, in order to sell it to the poor at the low prices of the harvest-time (B. B. 90b). In order to save the people from being cheated he ordered the merchants never to take a profit
of more than one-sixth of the cost price (B. M. 40b), and he was ready even to temporarily modify the Law in order to prevent them from selling at a high price goods necessary for the fulfilment of a religious duty (Pes. 30a; Sukkah 34b). In a certain case also he permitted the infraction of a religious prescription in order to keep people from harm (Shab. 42a).
33a). He never obstinately insisted on his own opinion, but yielded as soon as he was convinced of being in error ('Eruvin 90a, b; Ḥul. 76b; Ber. 36a). He was friendly to all men, and declared: "It is forbidden to deceive any man, be he Jew or pagan
" (Ḥul. 94a). "Before the throne of the Creator
there is no difference between Jews and pagans, since there are many noble and virtuous among the latter" (Yer. R. H. i. 57a). He taught that the dignity of manhood should be respected even in the slave: the slave is given to the master only as a servant, and the master has no right to treat him with condescension or to insult him (Niddah 17a, 47a). Once, when a female slave had been taken away from Samuel and he had unexpectedly recovered her by paying a ransom, he felt obliged to liberate her because he had given up hope of recovering her (Giṭ. 38a).
Mar Samuel seems to have possessed a thorough knowledge of the science of medicine as it was known in his day; this is evident from many of his medical maxims and dietetic rules scattered through the Talmud. He energetically opposed the view then current, even in intelligent circles, that most disease
s were due to the evil eye
, declaring that the source of all disease must be sought in the noxious influence exercised by the air and the climate upon the human organism (B. M. 107b). He traced many diseases to lack of cleanliness (Shab. 133b), and others to disturbances of the regular mode of living (B. B.
146a). He claimed to possess cures for most diseases (B. M. 113b), and was especially skilful in treating the eye (B. M. 85b); he discovered an eye-salve which was known as the "ḳillurin [κολλύριον] of Mar Samuel," although he himself said that bathing the eyes with cold water in the morning and bathing hands and feet with warm water in the evening were better than all the eye-salves in the world (Shab. 78a, 108b). Samuel discovered also a number of the diseases of animals (Ḥul. 42b). He sometimes drew the figure of a palm branch as his signature (Yer. Giṭ. ix. 50d), although this was, perhaps, used by physicians generally at that time as a sign of their profession (Rapoport, "'Erek Millin," p. 17).
From the scattered references in the Talmud it is impossible to determine exactly Mar Samuel's proficiency in astronomy; but he knew how to solve many mathematics
problems and how to explain many phenomena. He says himself: "Although I am as familiar with the courses of the star
s as with the streets of Nehardea
, I can not explain the nature or the movements of the comets" (Ber. 58b). Samuel devoted himself especially to that branch of applied astronomy that deals with calendric science, which he taught to his colleagues and pupils. His astronomical studies of the revolutions of the moon
enabled him to predict the beginning of the month ("Rosh Chodesh
") as it was determined in Palestine, and he claimed to be able to remove the necessity of celebrating double holy days in the Diaspora
(R. H. 20b; comp. Rashi ad loc.). He also computed a Hebrew calendar
for sixty years, which he subsequently sent to R. Johanan, the head of the Palestinian teachers, as a proof of his knowledge (Ḥul. 95b). He was called "Yarḥina'ah" or "Yarhinai" ("yeraḥ" = "month") because of this familiarity with calendric science and this ability to determine independently the beginning of the month (B. M. 85b). According to Krochmal ("He-Ḥaluẓ," i. 76), "Shoḳed," another name given to Samuel, means "astronomer" (Yer. Ket. iv. 28b); but Hoffmann's view that "Shoḳed" (for which Babli has "Shaḳud"; Ket. 43b) means "the watchful, diligent one," is more likely correct. This name is said to have been given to Samuel because, despite his medical and astronomic studies, he devoted himself to the study of the Law.
law he was not considered as great an authority as his colleague Rab, and practical questions were always decided according to Rab's views as against those of Samuel (Niddah
24b; Bek. 49b). In civil law his authority was the highest in Babylon, and his decisions became law even when contrary to Rab's (ib.). Mar Samuel amplified and expanded earlier legal theories and originated many new legal maxims. He formulated the important principle that the law of the country in which the Jews are living is binding upon them (Baba Kama 113b). This principle, which was recognized as valid from a halakic point of view, made it a religious duty for the Jews to obey the laws of the country. Thus, although the Jews had their own civil courts, Mar Samuel thought that the Persian law should be taken into account and that various Jewish regulations should be modified according to it (B. M. 108a; B. B. 55a). On account of his loyalty to the government and his friendship with the Sassanid
king, Shapur I
, Samuel was called Shabur Malka (B. B. 115b). Fürst ("Orient, Lit." 1847, No. 3, p. 39) and Rapoport (ib. p. 196) refer, each differently, the name of Aryok, given to Samuel (comp. Shab. 53a; Ḳid. 39a; Men. 38b; Ḥul. 76b), to his close relations with the Neo-Persians and their king. Older commentators explain this name without reference to such relations (Tos. Shab. 53a; Rashi ad loc.; comp. Fessler, l.c. p. 9, note 1).
R' Yitzhak HaLevi Herzog
disagrees with that interpretation. First, Samuel intended to demonstrate a Law not his emotions on the subject. Second, Samuel held that the Messianic Era would arrive through natural means. Samuel may have believed that King Shapur I
was destined to usher in the 3rd temple era as Cyrus had been before him. Therefore those Jews who fought on the side of the Roman Emperor Julian were prolonging the exile and not worthy of being mourned. (Pesakim U' Kesavim vol.2)
But he had a great love for his people, and he loyally cherished the memory of the former kingdom of Judah
. Once, when one of his contemporaries adorned himself with a crown of olive, Samuel sent him the following message: "The head of a Jew that now wears a crown while Jerusalem lies desolate, deserves to be separated from its trunk
" (Yer. Soṭah ix. 24b, c). Samuel expected the restoration of the Jewish state
in Palestine
to come about in a natural way, through permission given to the Jews by the various governments to return to Palestine and establish an independent state there (Ber. 34b).
Mar Samuel was unfortunate in his family life. He had no sons, and his two daughters were captured by soldiers during the war with the Romans. They were taken to Sepphoris, in Palestine, where they were ransomed by coreligionists, but both died at an early age after having been married successively to a relative (Ket. 23a; Yer. Ket. ii. 26c). The esteem in which Mar Samuel was held appears from the fact that no one thought of attributing his misfortune to any sin committed by him; it was explained rather as being in consequence of some offense committed in Babylon by R. Ḥananya, the nephew of R. Joshua (Yer. Ket. ii. 8; comp. Ket. 23a). After his death Samuel was glorified in legend.
Talmud
The Talmud is a central text of mainstream Judaism. It takes the form of a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, philosophy, customs and history....
ist who lived in Babylonia
Babylonia
Babylonia was an ancient cultural region in central-southern Mesopotamia , with Babylon as its capital. Babylonia emerged as a major power when Hammurabi Babylonia was an ancient cultural region in central-southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq), with Babylon as its capital. Babylonia emerged as...
, known as an Amora
Amora
Amoraim , were renowned Jewish scholars who "said" or "told over" the teachings of the Oral law, from about 200 to 500 CE in Babylonia and the Land of Israel. Their legal discussions and debates were eventually codified in the Gemara...
of the first generation; son of Abba bar Abba
Abba bar Abba
Abba bar Abba or Father of Samuel was a Jewish Talmudist who lived in Babylonia, known as an amora of the 2nd and 3rd centuries, distinguished for piety, benevolence, and learning...
and head of the Yeshiva
Talmudic Academies in Babylonia
The Talmudic Academies in Babylonia, also known as the Geonic Academies, were the center for Jewish scholarship and the development of Jewish law in Mesopotamia from roughly 589 CE to 1038 CE...
at Nehardea
Nehardea
Nehardea or Nehardeah was a city of Babylonia, situated at or near the junction of the Euphrates with the Nahr Malka , one of the earliest centers of Babylonian Judaism. As the seat of the exilarch it traced its origin back to King Jehoiachin...
. He was a teacher of halakha
Halakha
Halakha — also transliterated Halocho , or Halacha — is the collective body of Jewish law, including biblical law and later talmudic and rabbinic law, as well as customs and traditions.Judaism classically draws no distinction in its laws between religious and ostensibly non-religious life; Jewish...
, judge
Judge
A judge is a person who presides over court proceedings, either alone or as part of a panel of judges. The powers, functions, method of appointment, discipline, and training of judges vary widely across different jurisdictions. The judge is supposed to conduct the trial impartially and in an open...
, physician
Physician
A physician is a health care provider who practices the profession of medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring human health through the study, diagnosis, and treatment of disease, injury and other physical and mental impairments...
, and astronomer
Astronomer
An astronomer is a scientist who studies celestial bodies such as planets, stars and galaxies.Historically, astronomy was more concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in the sky, while astrophysics attempted to explain these phenomena and the differences between them using...
. He was born about 165 at Nehardea, in Babylonia and died there about 257. As in the case of many other great men, a number of legendary stories are connected with his birth (comp. Halakot Gedolot, Giṭṭin, end; Tos. Ḳid. s.v. ). In Talmud
Talmud
The Talmud is a central text of mainstream Judaism. It takes the form of a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, philosophy, customs and history....
ic texts, Samuel is frequently associated with Abba Arika
Abba Arika
Abba Arika was a Jewish Talmudist who lived in Babylonia, known as an amora of the 3rd century who established at Sura the systematic study of the rabbinic traditions, which, using the Mishnah as text, led to the compilation of the Talmud...
, with whom he debated on many major issues. He was the teacher of Rabbi Judah ben Ezekiel
Judah ben Ezekiel
Judah ben Ezekiel , was a Babylonian amora of the 2nd generation. He was the most prominent disciple of Rav , in whose house he often stayed, and whose son Hiyya was his pupil...
. From the little biographical information gleaned from the Talmud, we know that Samuel was never ordained as a Tanna, that he was very precise with his words (Kidd. 70), and that he had a special affinity for astronomy
Astronomy
Astronomy is a natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth...
: one of his best known sayings was that "The paths of heaven are as clear to me as the pathways of Nehardea."
Birth
His father, who subsequently was known only by the Aramaic languageAramaic language
Aramaic is a group of languages belonging to the Afroasiatic language phylum. The name of the language is based on the name of Aram, an ancient region in central Syria. Within this family, Aramaic belongs to the Semitic family, and more specifically, is a part of the Northwest Semitic subfamily,...
designation Abuh di-Shemu'el ("father of Samuel"), was a silk
Silk
Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The best-known type of silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity...
-merchant
Silk Road
The Silk Road or Silk Route refers to a historical network of interlinking trade routes across the Afro-Eurasian landmass that connected East, South, and Western Asia with the Mediterranean and European world, as well as parts of North and East Africa...
. R. Judah ben Bathyra
Judah ben Bathyra
Judah ben Bathyra or simply Judah Bathyra was an eminent tanna. He must have lived before the destruction of the Temple, since he prevented a pagan in Jerusalem from partaking of the Paschal offering...
ordered a silken garment from him, but refused to take it after Abba had procured it, and when the latter asked him the reason of his refusal, R. Judah answered, "The commission was only a spoken word, and was not sufficient to make the transaction binding." Abba thereupon said, "Is the word of a sage not a better guarantee than his money?" "You are right," said R. Judah; "and because you lay so much stress upon a given word you shall have the good fortune of having a son who shall be like the prophet Samuel, and whose word all Israel will recognize as true." Soon afterward a son was born to Abba, whom he named Samuel (Midr. Shemu'el, x. [ed. Martin Buber
Martin Buber
Martin Buber was an Austrian-born Jewish philosopher best known for his philosophy of dialogue, a form of religious existentialism centered on the distinction between the I-Thou relationship and the I-It relationship....
, p. 39a]).
Youth
Even as a boy Samuel displayed rare ability (Yer. KetuvimKetuvim
Ketuvim or Kəṯûḇîm in actual Biblical Hebrew is the third and final section of the Tanak , after Torah and Nevi'im . In English translations of the Hebrew Bible, this section is usually entitled "Writings" or "Hagiographa"...
v. 30a; Yer. Peah viii. 21b). His first teacher was an otherwise unknown man, and Samuel, who knew more about a certain legal question than did his teacher, would not submit to ill treatment by him (Ḥul. 107b). Then Samuel's father, who was himself a prominent teacher of the Law, recognized as such even by Rab (Abba Arika; Ket. 51b), undertook to instruct the boy. As he seems to have been unequal to this task he sent him to Nisibis
Nisibis
Nusaybin Nisêbîn) is a city in Mardin Province, Turkey, populated mainly by Kurds. Earlier Arameans, Arabs, and Armenians lived in the city. The population of the city is 83,832 as of 2009.-Ancient Period:...
to attend the school of the rabbi who had predicted the boy's birth, that he might there acquire a knowledge of the Law ("Tanya," Hilkot "Abel," ed. Horowitz, p. 137, quoted from Yer.; comp. also Mordecai on M. Ḳ. 889). Samuel seems to have remained only a short time at Nisibis. On his return to Nehardea he studied under Levi b. Sisi, who was in Babylon before the death of Judah ha-Nasi (see A. Krochmal in "He-Ḥaluẓ," i. 69), and who exerted a great influence on Samuel's development. Samuel made such rapid progress and became so proficient in his studies that he soon associated as an equal with his teacher (Hoffmann, "Mar Samuel," p. 70).
His training
Apart from the Bible and the traditional Law, which were usually the only subjects of study of the Jewish youth of that time, Samuel was instructed, probably in his early youth, in other sciences. It is likely that he accompanied his father on the latter's journey to Palestine (Yet. B. M. iv. 9c; Yer. Pes. v. 32a); for after his teacher Levi ben SisiLevi ben Sisi
Levi ben Sisi or Levi bar Sisi was a Jewish scholar, disciple of the patriarch Judah I, and school associate of his son Simeon Levi ben Sisi or Levi bar Sisi (Sisyi, Susyi, Hebrew: לוי בר סיסי) was a Jewish scholar, disciple of the patriarch Judah I, and school associate of his son Simeon Levi ben...
had gone to Palestine there was no one in Babylon with whom he could have studied. According to an account in the Talmud (B. M. 85b), which Rapoport declares to be a later addition ("'Erek Millin," pp. 10, 222), but which may have some basis in fact, Samuel is said to have cured R. Judah ha-Nasi I of an affliction of the eyes. Although Samuel was at that time too young to study directly under R. Judah, he studied under the pupils of the patriarch, especially with Hanina bar Hama
Hanina bar Hama
Hanina bar Hama was a Jewish Talmudist, halakist and haggadist frequently quoted in the Babylonian and the Jerusalem Talmud, and in the Midrashim....
(comp. Hoffmann, l.c. pp. 71–73; Fessler, "Mar Samuel, der Bedeutendste Amora," p. 14, note 1).
After having acquired a great store of knowledge in the Land of Israel
Land of Israel
The Land of Israel is the Biblical name for the territory roughly corresponding to the area encompassed by the Southern Levant, also known as Canaan and Palestine, Promised Land and Holy Land. The belief that the area is a God-given homeland of the Jewish people is based on the narrative of the...
, his studies there including the Mishnah
Mishnah
The Mishnah or Mishna is the first major written redaction of the Jewish oral traditions called the "Oral Torah". It is also the first major work of Rabbinic Judaism. It was redacted c...
edited by R. Judah ha-Nasi as well as the other collections of traditional lore, Samuel left the Holy Land
Holy Land
The Holy Land is a term which in Judaism refers to the Kingdom of Israel as defined in the Tanakh. For Jews, the Land's identifiction of being Holy is defined in Judaism by its differentiation from other lands by virtue of the practice of Judaism often possible only in the Land of Israel...
, probably with his father, and returned to his native city. His reputation as a teacher of the Law having preceded him, many pupils gathered about him. As he was especially well versed in civil law
Civil law (legal system)
Civil law is a legal system inspired by Roman law and whose primary feature is that laws are codified into collections, as compared to common law systems that gives great precedential weight to common law on the principle that it is unfair to treat similar facts differently on different...
, the exilarch Mar Ukba
Mar Ukba
Mar Ukba, an exilarch at Baghdad in the first half of the tenth century; the second exilarch to die in banishment. When Kohen Ẓedeḳ II was appointed gaon of Pumbedita he became involved in a controversy with Mar 'Uḳba over the revenues from Khorasan; and the calif Al-Muḳtadir was induced by...
, who was his pupil, appointed him judge of the bet din at Nehardea, where he was associated with his friend the learned and clever Karna. This court was regarded at that time as the foremost institution of its kind. In Palestine, as well as in Babylon, Samuel and Ḳarna were called the "judges of the Diaspora" (dayyane Golah; Sanhedrin
Sanhedrin
The Sanhedrin was an assembly of twenty-three judges appointed in every city in the Biblical Land of Israel.The Great Sanhedrin was the supreme court of ancient Israel made of 71 members...
17b). Upon the death of R. Shila, the director of the Academy ("resh sidra") of Nehardea, Mar Samuel was appointed to the office, after it had been refused by Rab, who would not accept any post of honor at Nehardea, Samuel's home (Letter of Sherira Gaon
Sherira Gaon
Rav Sherira Gaon was the head of the Academy of Pumbeditha. He was one of the most prominent Geonim of his period, and the father of Hai Gaon, who succeeded him as gaon.Sherira was born in 906 and died in 1006. Rav Sherira Gaon (Hebrew: רב שרירא גאון or R. Sherira ben Ḥanina Gaon, Hebrew: רב...
, in Neubauer, "M. J. C." p. 28). The Academy of Nehardea entered upon a brilliant phase of its existence under Samuel's directorate, and, with the academy founded by Rab at Sura
Sura (city)
Sura was a city in the southern part of ancient Babylonia, located west of the Euphrates River. It was well-known for its agricultural produce, which included grapes, wheat, and barley...
, enjoyed a high general reputation.
As Gaon
Rab at SuraSura (city)
Sura was a city in the southern part of ancient Babylonia, located west of the Euphrates River. It was well-known for its agricultural produce, which included grapes, wheat, and barley...
and Mar Samuel at Nehardea established the intellectual independence of Babylonian Jewry. Young men taking up the study of the Law there were no longer obliged to go to Palestine, since they had the foremost teachers at home. Babylon now came to be regarded, in a sense, as a second Holy Land. Samuel taught, "As it is forbidden to migrate from Palestine to Babylon, so is it forbidden to migrate from Babylon to other countries" (Ket. 111a). After Rab's death no new director was elected, and Rab's greatest pupil, R. Huna, who became president of the court of Sura, subordinated himself to Mar Samuel in every respect, asking his decision in every difficult religio-legal question (Giṭ. 66b, 89b; comp. Sanh. 17b; Tos. ib., s.v. , the phrase "be Rab" referring to R. Huna).
The Academy of Nehardea was now the only one in Babylon, and its director, Samuel, who survived Rab about ten years, was regarded as the highest authority by the Babylonian Jews. Even Rabbi Yochanan, the most prominent teacher in Palestine, and who at first looked upon Samuel merely as a colleague, became so convinced of his greatness, after Samuel had sent him a large number of responsa on important ritual laws, that he exclaimed, "I have a teacher in Babylon
Babylon
Babylon was an Akkadian city-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which are found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq, about 85 kilometers south of Baghdad...
" (Ḥul. 95b).
As a man, Mar Samuel was distinguished for his modesty, gentleness, and unselfishness, being always ready to subordinate his own interests to those of the community. He said: "A man may never exclude himself from the community, but must seek his welfare in that of society" (Berakhot
Berakhot (Talmud)
Berachot is the first tractate of Seder Zeraim, a collection of the Mishnah that primarily deals with laws relating to plants and farming...
49b). He demanded seemly behavior from every one, saying that any improper conduct was punishable by law (Ḥag. 5a). One should help one's fellow man at the first signs of approaching difficulties, so as to prevent them, and not wait until he is in actual distress (ib.). In his solicitude for helpless orphan
Orphan
An orphan is a child permanently bereaved of or abandoned by his or her parents. In common usage, only a child who has lost both parents is called an orphan...
s he imposed upon every court the task of acting as father
In loco parentis
The term in loco parentis, Latin for "in the place of a parent"" refers to the legal responsibility of a person or organization to take on some of the functions and responsibilities of a parent...
to them (Yeb. 67b; Giṭ. 37a, 52b); and he declared that a loan taken from an orphan was not canceled in the Sabbatical year, even if no prosbul had been made out for it (Giṭ. 36b-37a). He stored his grain until prices had risen, in order to sell it to the poor at the low prices of the harvest-time (B. B. 90b). In order to save the people from being cheated he ordered the merchants never to take a profit
Profit (accounting)
In accounting, profit can be considered to be the difference between the purchase price and the costs of bringing to market whatever it is that is accounted as an enterprise in terms of the component costs of delivered goods and/or services and any operating or other expenses.-Definition:There are...
of more than one-sixth of the cost price (B. M. 40b), and he was ready even to temporarily modify the Law in order to prevent them from selling at a high price goods necessary for the fulfilment of a religious duty (Pes. 30a; Sukkah 34b). In a certain case also he permitted the infraction of a religious prescription in order to keep people from harm (Shab. 42a).
His halakha
Mar Samuel was very modest in his associations with others, openly honoring any one from whom he had gained any knowledge (Bava MetziaBava Metzia
Bava Metzia is the second of the first three Talmudic tractates in the order of Nezikin , the other two being Bava Kamma and Bava Batra. Originally all three formed a single tractate called Nezikin , each Bava being a Part or subdivision...
33a). He never obstinately insisted on his own opinion, but yielded as soon as he was convinced of being in error ('Eruvin 90a, b; Ḥul. 76b; Ber. 36a). He was friendly to all men, and declared: "It is forbidden to deceive any man, be he Jew or pagan
Paganism
Paganism is a blanket term, typically used to refer to non-Abrahamic, indigenous polytheistic religious traditions....
" (Ḥul. 94a). "Before the throne of the Creator
God
God is the English name given to a singular being in theistic and deistic religions who is either the sole deity in monotheism, or a single deity in polytheism....
there is no difference between Jews and pagans, since there are many noble and virtuous among the latter" (Yer. R. H. i. 57a). He taught that the dignity of manhood should be respected even in the slave: the slave is given to the master only as a servant, and the master has no right to treat him with condescension or to insult him (Niddah 17a, 47a). Once, when a female slave had been taken away from Samuel and he had unexpectedly recovered her by paying a ransom, he felt obliged to liberate her because he had given up hope of recovering her (Giṭ. 38a).
Mar Samuel seems to have possessed a thorough knowledge of the science of medicine as it was known in his day; this is evident from many of his medical maxims and dietetic rules scattered through the Talmud. He energetically opposed the view then current, even in intelligent circles, that most disease
Disease
A disease is an abnormal condition affecting the body of an organism. It is often construed to be a medical condition associated with specific symptoms and signs. It may be caused by external factors, such as infectious disease, or it may be caused by internal dysfunctions, such as autoimmune...
s were due to the evil eye
Evil eye
The evil eye is a look that is believed by many cultures to be able to cause injury or bad luck for the person at whom it is directed for reasons of envy or dislike...
, declaring that the source of all disease must be sought in the noxious influence exercised by the air and the climate upon the human organism (B. M. 107b). He traced many diseases to lack of cleanliness (Shab. 133b), and others to disturbances of the regular mode of living (B. B.
Bava Batra
Bava Batra is the third of the three tractates in the Talmud in the order Nezikin; it deals with a person's responsibilities and rights as the owner of property. It is part of Judaism's oral law...
146a). He claimed to possess cures for most diseases (B. M. 113b), and was especially skilful in treating the eye (B. M. 85b); he discovered an eye-salve which was known as the "ḳillurin [κολλύριον] of Mar Samuel," although he himself said that bathing the eyes with cold water in the morning and bathing hands and feet with warm water in the evening were better than all the eye-salves in the world (Shab. 78a, 108b). Samuel discovered also a number of the diseases of animals (Ḥul. 42b). He sometimes drew the figure of a palm branch as his signature (Yer. Giṭ. ix. 50d), although this was, perhaps, used by physicians generally at that time as a sign of their profession (Rapoport, "'Erek Millin," p. 17).
From the scattered references in the Talmud it is impossible to determine exactly Mar Samuel's proficiency in astronomy; but he knew how to solve many mathematics
Mathematics
Mathematics is the study of quantity, space, structure, and change. Mathematicians seek out patterns and formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proofs, which are arguments sufficient to convince other mathematicians of their validity...
problems and how to explain many phenomena. He says himself: "Although I am as familiar with the courses of the star
Star
A star is a massive, luminous sphere of plasma held together by gravity. At the end of its lifetime, a star can also contain a proportion of degenerate matter. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the energy on Earth...
s as with the streets of Nehardea
Nehardea
Nehardea or Nehardeah was a city of Babylonia, situated at or near the junction of the Euphrates with the Nahr Malka , one of the earliest centers of Babylonian Judaism. As the seat of the exilarch it traced its origin back to King Jehoiachin...
, I can not explain the nature or the movements of the comets" (Ber. 58b). Samuel devoted himself especially to that branch of applied astronomy that deals with calendric science, which he taught to his colleagues and pupils. His astronomical studies of the revolutions of the moon
Moon
The Moon is Earth's only known natural satellite,There are a number of near-Earth asteroids including 3753 Cruithne that are co-orbital with Earth: their orbits bring them close to Earth for periods of time but then alter in the long term . These are quasi-satellites and not true moons. For more...
enabled him to predict the beginning of the month ("Rosh Chodesh
Rosh Chodesh
Rosh Chodesh or Rosh ḥodesh is the name for the first day of every month in the Hebrew calendar, marked by the appearance of the new moon. The new moon is marked by the day and hour that the new crescent is observed...
") as it was determined in Palestine, and he claimed to be able to remove the necessity of celebrating double holy days in the Diaspora
Diaspora
A diaspora is "the movement, migration, or scattering of people away from an established or ancestral homeland" or "people dispersed by whatever cause to more than one location", or "people settled far from their ancestral homelands".The word has come to refer to historical mass-dispersions of...
(R. H. 20b; comp. Rashi ad loc.). He also computed a Hebrew calendar
Hebrew calendar
The Hebrew calendar , or Jewish calendar, is a lunisolar calendar used today predominantly for Jewish religious observances. It determines the dates for Jewish holidays and the appropriate public reading of Torah portions, yahrzeits , and daily Psalm reading, among many ceremonial uses...
for sixty years, which he subsequently sent to R. Johanan, the head of the Palestinian teachers, as a proof of his knowledge (Ḥul. 95b). He was called "Yarḥina'ah" or "Yarhinai" ("yeraḥ" = "month") because of this familiarity with calendric science and this ability to determine independently the beginning of the month (B. M. 85b). According to Krochmal ("He-Ḥaluẓ," i. 76), "Shoḳed," another name given to Samuel, means "astronomer" (Yer. Ket. iv. 28b); but Hoffmann's view that "Shoḳed" (for which Babli has "Shaḳud"; Ket. 43b) means "the watchful, diligent one," is more likely correct. This name is said to have been given to Samuel because, despite his medical and astronomic studies, he devoted himself to the study of the Law.
Aggadah
Following the example of his teacher Levi ben Sisi, Mar Samuel collected the traditions handed down to him; his collection of baraitot, called "Tanna debe Shemu'el" in the Talmud (Shab. 54a; 'Er. 70b, 86a, 89b; Pes. 3a, 39a, b; Beẓah 29a; R. H. 29b; Yoma 70a; Meg. 30a; Zeb. 22a), was noted for its correctness and trustworthiness, although it was not held in such high esteem as were the collections of R. Ḥiyya and R. Hoshaiah (Letter of Sherira Gaon, l.c. p. 18). Samuel did much to elucidate the Mishnah, both by his textual explanations (Shab. 104b; Pes. 119b; Giṭ. 67b; B. M. 23b; 'Ab. Zarah 8b, 32a; R. H. 18a; Ḳid. 76b) and by his precise paraphrasing of ambiguous expressions and his references to other traditions. He is chiefly important, however, because of his promulgation of new theories and his independent decisions both in ritual and in civil law. However, in the field of ritualRitual
A ritual is a set of actions, performed mainly for their symbolic value. It may be prescribed by a religion or by the traditions of a community. The term usually excludes actions which are arbitrarily chosen by the performers....
law he was not considered as great an authority as his colleague Rab, and practical questions were always decided according to Rab's views as against those of Samuel (Niddah
Niddah
Niddah is a Hebrew term describing a woman during menstruation, or a woman who has menstruated and not yet completed the associated requirement of immersion in a mikveh ....
24b; Bek. 49b). In civil law his authority was the highest in Babylon, and his decisions became law even when contrary to Rab's (ib.). Mar Samuel amplified and expanded earlier legal theories and originated many new legal maxims. He formulated the important principle that the law of the country in which the Jews are living is binding upon them (Baba Kama 113b). This principle, which was recognized as valid from a halakic point of view, made it a religious duty for the Jews to obey the laws of the country. Thus, although the Jews had their own civil courts, Mar Samuel thought that the Persian law should be taken into account and that various Jewish regulations should be modified according to it (B. M. 108a; B. B. 55a). On account of his loyalty to the government and his friendship with the Sassanid
Sassanid Empire
The Sassanid Empire , known to its inhabitants as Ērānshahr and Ērān in Middle Persian and resulting in the New Persian terms Iranshahr and Iran , was the last pre-Islamic Persian Empire, ruled by the Sasanian Dynasty from 224 to 651...
king, Shapur I
Shapur I
Shapur I or also known as Shapur I the Great was the second Sassanid King of the Second Persian Empire. The dates of his reign are commonly given as 240/42 - 270/72, but it is likely that he also reigned as co-regent prior to his father's death in 242 .-Early years:Shapur was the son of Ardashir I...
, Samuel was called Shabur Malka (B. B. 115b). Fürst ("Orient, Lit." 1847, No. 3, p. 39) and Rapoport (ib. p. 196) refer, each differently, the name of Aryok, given to Samuel (comp. Shab. 53a; Ḳid. 39a; Men. 38b; Ḥul. 76b), to his close relations with the Neo-Persians and their king. Older commentators explain this name without reference to such relations (Tos. Shab. 53a; Rashi ad loc.; comp. Fessler, l.c. p. 9, note 1).
Relations with the Persian court
It was due to Mar Samuel's influence with the Persian king that the Jews were granted many privileges. On one occasion Samuel even made his love for his own people subsidiary to his loyalty to the Persian king and to his strict view of the duties of a citizen; for when the news came that the Persians, on capturing Mazaca (Cæsarea), in Cappadocia, had killed 12,000 Jews who had obstinately opposed them, Samuel refrained from displaying any sorrow (M. Ḳ. 26a). It is worth noting that Samuel formulated the Talmudic dictum that "the law of the state must be followed".R' Yitzhak HaLevi Herzog
Yitzhak HaLevi Herzog
Rabbi Yitzhak HaLevi Herzog , also known as Isaac Herzog, was the first Chief Rabbi of Ireland, his term lasting from 1921 to 1936...
disagrees with that interpretation. First, Samuel intended to demonstrate a Law not his emotions on the subject. Second, Samuel held that the Messianic Era would arrive through natural means. Samuel may have believed that King Shapur I
Shapur I
Shapur I or also known as Shapur I the Great was the second Sassanid King of the Second Persian Empire. The dates of his reign are commonly given as 240/42 - 270/72, but it is likely that he also reigned as co-regent prior to his father's death in 242 .-Early years:Shapur was the son of Ardashir I...
was destined to usher in the 3rd temple era as Cyrus had been before him. Therefore those Jews who fought on the side of the Roman Emperor Julian were prolonging the exile and not worthy of being mourned. (Pesakim U' Kesavim vol.2)
But he had a great love for his people, and he loyally cherished the memory of the former kingdom of Judah
Kingdom of Judah
The Kingdom of Judah was a Jewish state established in the Southern Levant during the Iron Age. It is often referred to as the "Southern Kingdom" to distinguish it from the northern Kingdom of Israel....
. Once, when one of his contemporaries adorned himself with a crown of olive, Samuel sent him the following message: "The head of a Jew that now wears a crown while Jerusalem lies desolate, deserves to be separated from its trunk
Decapitation
Decapitation is the separation of the head from the body. Beheading typically refers to the act of intentional decapitation, e.g., as a means of murder or execution; it may be accomplished, for example, with an axe, sword, knife, wire, or by other more sophisticated means such as a guillotine...
" (Yer. Soṭah ix. 24b, c). Samuel expected the restoration of the Jewish state
Jewish state
A homeland for the Jewish people was an idea that rose to the fore in the 19th century in the wake of growing anti-Semitism and Jewish assimilation. Jewish emancipation in Europe paved the way for two ideological solutions to the Jewish Question: cultural assimilation, as envisaged by Moses...
in Palestine
Palestine
Palestine is a conventional name, among others, used to describe the geographic region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River, and various adjoining lands....
to come about in a natural way, through permission given to the Jews by the various governments to return to Palestine and establish an independent state there (Ber. 34b).
Mar Samuel was unfortunate in his family life. He had no sons, and his two daughters were captured by soldiers during the war with the Romans. They were taken to Sepphoris, in Palestine, where they were ransomed by coreligionists, but both died at an early age after having been married successively to a relative (Ket. 23a; Yer. Ket. ii. 26c). The esteem in which Mar Samuel was held appears from the fact that no one thought of attributing his misfortune to any sin committed by him; it was explained rather as being in consequence of some offense committed in Babylon by R. Ḥananya, the nephew of R. Joshua (Yer. Ket. ii. 8; comp. Ket. 23a). After his death Samuel was glorified in legend.