Self-determination (philosophy)
Encyclopedia
Self-determination is the idea of a positive freedom, a freedom for actions that we originate, actions that are "up to us." Such acts constitute the essence of free will
. This is Mortimer Adler
's term, translating ideas from Aristotle
and Aquinas. It was adopted also by Robert Kane
for his theory of Ultimate Responsibility.
The technical terms Determination and Adequate determinism have been proposed as preferable to determinism
to describe actions that are adequately determined by an agent's current reasons, motives, and desires, as opposed to the strict predeterminism
by a causal chain of events going back before the agent's birth.
Self-realization is freedom from external coercion, political end economic freedom, etc. (See Self-determination
in politics.) This is the "freedom of action" of compatibilist philosophers since Thomas Hobbes
and David Hume
. They argue that the will may be pre-determined by antecedent causes in an unbroken chain that goes back to the origin of the universe, but humans are free as long as they are not physically or mentally constrained.
Self-perfection is the idea from Plato to Kant that we are only free when our decisions are for reasons and we are not slaves to our passions (making moral choices rather than satisfying desires). This leads to the idea that free will and moral responsibility are inextricably linked. Some modern philosophers think that "freedom" refers to whatever conditions are involved in choosing or acting in such a way as to be morally responsible.
Self-determination covers the classic problem of free will
. Are our actions "up to us," could we have done otherwise, are there alternative possibilities, or is everything simply part of a great causal deterministic chain
leading to a single possible future?
Adler defines the natural freedom of self-determination as that which is not either circumstantial or acquired.
In his volume II of The Idea of Freedom," written a few years later, Adler revisits the idea of a natural freedom of self-determination. He explicitly includes alternative possibilities and the self as a cause so our actions are "up to us." His "uncaused self" decides from prior alternative possibilities.
. Although the Romans had in Latin the same complex combination of free and will in their term (liberum arbitrium or libera voluntas) as there is in English, the Greeks had no such combination.
For the Greeks, and particularly for Aristotle
, the term closest to the modern complex idea of free will was ἐφ ἡμῖν - "on us" or "depends on us." In the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle said,
εἰ δὲ ταῦτα φαίνεται καὶ μὴ ἔχομεν εἰς ἄλλας ἀρχὰς ἀναγαγεῖν παρὰ τὰς ἐν ἡμῖν, ὧν καὶ αἱ ἀρχαὶ ἐν ἡμῖν, καὶ αὐτὰ ἐφ' ἡμῖν καὶ ἑκούσια.
"But if it is manifest that a man is the author of his own actions, and if we are unable to trace our conduct back to any other origins than those within ourselves, then actions of which the origins are within us, themselves depend upon us, and are voluntary."
Epicurus
clearly described self-determination as a third thing opposed to chance
and necessity
. He thought human agents have an autonomous ability to transcend the necessity and chance of some events. This special ability makes us morally responsible for our actions.
The Epicurean "swerve" of the atoms is frequently misinterpreted as claiming that free will depends directly on chance for the cause of actions. The swerve need only break the chain of determinism
and allow uncaused alternative possibilities.
Epicurus actually said "..some things happen of necessity (ἀνάγκη), others by chance (τύχη), others through our own agency (παρ' ἡμᾶς).
...necessity destroys responsibility and chance is uncertain; whereas our own actions are autonomous, and it is to them that praise and blame naturally attach.
Free will
"To make my own decisions whether I am successful or not due to uncontrollable forces" -Troy MorrisonA pragmatic definition of free willFree will is the ability of agents to make choices free from certain kinds of constraints. The existence of free will and its exact nature and definition have long...
. This is Mortimer Adler
Mortimer Adler
Mortimer Jerome Adler was an American philosopher, educator, and popular author. As a philosopher he worked within the Aristotelian and Thomistic traditions. He lived for the longest stretches in New York City, Chicago, San Francisco, and San Mateo, California...
's term, translating ideas from Aristotle
Aristotle
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology...
and Aquinas. It was adopted also by Robert Kane
Robert Kane
Robert Kane may refer to:* Bob Kane , born as Robert Kahn; co-creator of Batman* Robert Kane , Irish chemist* Robert Kane , president of the United States Olympic Committee...
for his theory of Ultimate Responsibility.
The technical terms Determination and Adequate determinism have been proposed as preferable to determinism
Determinism
Determinism is the general philosophical thesis that states that for everything that happens there are conditions such that, given them, nothing else could happen. There are many versions of this thesis. Each of them rests upon various alleged connections, and interdependencies of things and...
to describe actions that are adequately determined by an agent's current reasons, motives, and desires, as opposed to the strict predeterminism
Predeterminism
Predeterminism is the idea that every event is caused, not simply by the immediately prior events, but by a causal chain of events that goes back well before recent events...
by a causal chain of events going back before the agent's birth.
Mortimer Adler
In the first volume of his work The Idea of Freedom, Adler classifies all freedoms into three categories:
* The Circumstantial Freedom of Self-Realization
* The Acquired Freedom of Self-Perfection
* The Natural Freedom of Self-Determination
Self-realization is freedom from external coercion, political end economic freedom, etc. (See Self-determination
Self-determination
Self-determination is the principle in international law that nations have the right to freely choose their sovereignty and international political status with no external compulsion or external interference...
in politics.) This is the "freedom of action" of compatibilist philosophers since Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury , in some older texts Thomas Hobbs of Malmsbury, was an English philosopher, best known today for his work on political philosophy...
and David Hume
David Hume
David Hume was a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, known especially for his philosophical empiricism and skepticism. He was one of the most important figures in the history of Western philosophy and the Scottish Enlightenment...
. They argue that the will may be pre-determined by antecedent causes in an unbroken chain that goes back to the origin of the universe, but humans are free as long as they are not physically or mentally constrained.
Self-perfection is the idea from Plato to Kant that we are only free when our decisions are for reasons and we are not slaves to our passions (making moral choices rather than satisfying desires). This leads to the idea that free will and moral responsibility are inextricably linked. Some modern philosophers think that "freedom" refers to whatever conditions are involved in choosing or acting in such a way as to be morally responsible.
Self-determination covers the classic problem of free will
Free will
"To make my own decisions whether I am successful or not due to uncontrollable forces" -Troy MorrisonA pragmatic definition of free willFree will is the ability of agents to make choices free from certain kinds of constraints. The existence of free will and its exact nature and definition have long...
. Are our actions "up to us," could we have done otherwise, are there alternative possibilities, or is everything simply part of a great causal deterministic chain
Determinism
Determinism is the general philosophical thesis that states that for everything that happens there are conditions such that, given them, nothing else could happen. There are many versions of this thesis. Each of them rests upon various alleged connections, and interdependencies of things and...
leading to a single possible future?
Adler defines the natural freedom of self-determination as that which is not either circumstantial or acquired.
A freedom that is natural is one which is
(i) inherent in all men,
(ii) regardless of the circumstances under which they live and
(iii) without regard to any state of mind or character which they may or may not acquire in the course of their lives.
In his volume II of The Idea of Freedom," written a few years later, Adler revisits the idea of a natural freedom of self-determination. He explicitly includes alternative possibilities and the self as a cause so our actions are "up to us." His "uncaused self" decides from prior alternative possibilities.
Up To Us
The idea that at least some of our actions are self-determined and "up to us," that we can be the "authors of our own actions," and that they are not caused by external events is perhaps the most ancient concept of free willFree will
"To make my own decisions whether I am successful or not due to uncontrollable forces" -Troy MorrisonA pragmatic definition of free willFree will is the ability of agents to make choices free from certain kinds of constraints. The existence of free will and its exact nature and definition have long...
. Although the Romans had in Latin the same complex combination of free and will in their term (liberum arbitrium or libera voluntas) as there is in English, the Greeks had no such combination.
For the Greeks, and particularly for Aristotle
Aristotle
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology...
, the term closest to the modern complex idea of free will was ἐφ ἡμῖν - "on us" or "depends on us." In the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle said,
εἰ δὲ ταῦτα φαίνεται καὶ μὴ ἔχομεν εἰς ἄλλας ἀρχὰς ἀναγαγεῖν παρὰ τὰς ἐν ἡμῖν, ὧν καὶ αἱ ἀρχαὶ ἐν ἡμῖν, καὶ αὐτὰ ἐφ' ἡμῖν καὶ ἑκούσια.
"But if it is manifest that a man is the author of his own actions, and if we are unable to trace our conduct back to any other origins than those within ourselves, then actions of which the origins are within us, themselves depend upon us, and are voluntary."
Epicurus
Epicurus
Epicurus was an ancient Greek philosopher and the founder of the school of philosophy called Epicureanism.Only a few fragments and letters remain of Epicurus's 300 written works...
clearly described self-determination as a third thing opposed to chance
Chance
- Philosophy, logic and theology :* Chance * Contingency * Indeterminism* Luck* Probability* Randomness- Places :* Chancé, a commune in Brittany, France* Chance, Kentucky, U.S.* Chance, Maryland, U.S.* Chance, Virginia, U.S....
and necessity
Necessity
In U.S. criminal law, necessity may be either a possible justification or an exculpation for breaking the law. Defendants seeking to rely on this defense argue that they should not be held liable for their actions as a crime because their conduct was necessary to prevent some greater harm and when...
. He thought human agents have an autonomous ability to transcend the necessity and chance of some events. This special ability makes us morally responsible for our actions.
The Epicurean "swerve" of the atoms is frequently misinterpreted as claiming that free will depends directly on chance for the cause of actions. The swerve need only break the chain of determinism
Determinism
Determinism is the general philosophical thesis that states that for everything that happens there are conditions such that, given them, nothing else could happen. There are many versions of this thesis. Each of them rests upon various alleged connections, and interdependencies of things and...
and allow uncaused alternative possibilities.
Epicurus actually said "..some things happen of necessity (ἀνάγκη), others by chance (τύχη), others through our own agency (παρ' ἡμᾶς).
...necessity destroys responsibility and chance is uncertain; whereas our own actions are autonomous, and it is to them that praise and blame naturally attach.