Shvetashvatara Upanishad
Encyclopedia
The Shvetashvatara Upanishad (Sanskrit in Devanagari: श्वेताश्वतर उपनिषद; IAST
: ) (400 – 200 BCE) is one of the older, "primary" Upanishad
s. It is associated with the Krishna Yajurveda. It figures as number 14 in the Muktika
canon of 108 Upanishads. Adi Shankara
called it the "Mantra Upanishad" of the Vedic
Shvetashvatara school in his commentary on Brahma sutras
.
This Upanishad contains 113 mantras or verses in six chapters. In the last chapter the following verse is found.
This verse attributes this Upanishad
to a sage called "Shvetashvatara" or to his line of ancient spiritual teachers. The name "Shvetashvatara" is not uncommon in Vedic literature. It means "white mule
". The mule
was a prized animal in ancient Vedic India. A person who owns a white horse
is called "Shvetashva" and one who owns a white mule can be called "Shvetashvatara". One of Arjuna
's names in the epic Mahabharata
is "Shvetashva." The Rigveda
refers to "Shyavashva," meaning "One who owns a black horse."
The Shvetashvatara Upanishad is the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism
. As explained by Gavin Flood, the text proposes:
, but on comparison with his other commentaries, there is some doubt that is indeed composed by him. There are three other commentators, namely Vijnanatma, Shankarananda
and Narayana Tirtha.
is called by various names such as Shiva
, Rudra
, etc. From this feature one might assume it was a Shaiva Upanishad, but such an assumption would be incorrect because, at the time of this Upanishad, Shaiva Agamas
were not there. Also, at that time the Saguna Brahman, (God with attributes), used to be called by different names, each indicating a particular manifestation of Brahman
.
Just as the names Shiva or Rudra are used to refer to Brahman
, names such as Vayu
, Aditya or Agni
are also used for same purpose in this Upanishad, rather than referring to the demigods of those names.
Moreover, if this Upanishad is indeed a Shaiva Upanishad, other sects of Hinduism
such as Vaishnavas wouldn't have quoted its verses/mantras as authority in their respective treatises.
2] A second special feature is the prominent conception of Devotion or Bhakti
. In other Upanishads, the concept of Bhakti is indirectly voiced in the form of Upasana
, but here, leaving no room for guesswork, it is explicitly mentioned. The word para-bhakti is explicitly used at the end of the sixth chapter.
There are many words which voice submission to God or Brahman (words such as Sharanam, Prapadye, etc.).
This concept of devotion later found profound expression in the Bhakti Sutras and other treatises on Bhakti.
3] A third specialty of this Upanishad lies in its giving importance to the form (fullness or murtitva) of God, where Brahman is often described as formless in other important upanishads. Since it is difficult to concentrate the mind on and/or show devotion to a formless Brahman, the Shvetashvatara Upanshad ascribes various forms to God. While expounding on devotion, it also describes various characteristics or manifestations of God, such as mentioning that he has knowledge and power. This Upanishad also presents God as the creator and sustainer of the universe
and, while describing various powers of God, drives home the point with similes such as God having thousands of heads Sahasra-sheersha – to denote God's endless knowledge, thousands of eyes – to denote God as the universal witness for everything going on in the universe and God's having thousands of feet – to indicate his omnipresence. This Upanishad mentions that God or Parama Purusha is shining in his (or "its", since the Upanishads do not ascribe gender to Brahman) glory beyond the darkness of ignorance or Tamas. God controls the material energies of the universe through his characteristic Maya
or illusion of the world, but God is not bound by his Maya as humans are, because he is its controller and is capable of giving salvation to human beings.
4] A fourth specialty is the use of words such as Samkhya
, Kapila, yoga
and Prakriti. Some scholars suggest that this indicates an assimilation of the Sankhya-Yoga-Darshana school of thought into Vedanta
. If this view is right, it means that the Vedantic Upanishads originated later than the Sankhya-Yoga-Darshana school of thought. This view is unjustifiable for the following reasons:
The philosophical jargon of Samkhya
school of thought originated in the vedas
well before the birth of Samkhya. Originally, the word "samkhya" means counting or understanding. There are many verses in this Upanishad that have some counting of things in them; that is why the word "samkhya" was extended to mean knowledge. While Yoga
is practical, Sammkhya is intellectual. While samkhya is purely dualistic, Upanishads have a marked preference for non-dualism. In Samkhya the "Purusha" or self is different from "Prakriti" or Nature, but in Upanishadic thought Nature is a God-derived or God-dependent force. Specifically, this Upanishad refers to Prakriti as
Devatma Shakti, which can be roughly translated as "God's inner force that manifests itself as nature (Prakriti)".
One hymn of this Upanishad says,
It says this Atma Shakti of God is hidden secretly in the meditator's own inner nature.
Regarding the usage of the word "Kapila", from the context of nearby hymns to the hymn which uses the word kapila, it is clear that it does not denote the sage Kapila who is a proponent of Samkhya
. The hymn 5.2 which uses word "kapila" should be seen in the context of other hymns.
The 4th hymn of the 3rd chapter says,
The 12th hymn of 4th chapter says
Later, 18th hymn of 6th chapter says,
When seen in context of these hymns, the verse 5.2, which uses the word kapila, says,
In Sanskrit
, the word kapila means "golden-coloured". Hiranyagarbha means "one embodying a golden core". In the Upanishads, Hiranyagarbha also has other names such as Prajapati
, Brahma
, etc.
The second chapter of the Upanishad explores aspects of Yoga
, as verse 2.12 mentions, "When earth, water fire, air and akasa arise, when the five attributes of the elements, mentioned in the books on yoga, become manifest then the yogi's body becomes purified by the fire of yoga and he is free from illness, old age and death." . More importantly in the following verse (2.13) mentions, the "precursors of perfection in yoga", namely "lightness and healthiness of the body, absence of desire, clear complexion, pleasantness of voice, sweet odour and slight excretions".
Here are few examples.
While trying to describe the omnipresence of Brahman, hymn 4.2 says,
Hymn 4.4 says
IAST
The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration is a transliteration scheme that allows a lossless romanization of Indic scripts as employed by the Sanskrit language.-Popularity:...
: ) (400 – 200 BCE) is one of the older, "primary" Upanishad
Upanishad
The Upanishads are philosophical texts considered to be an early source of Hindu religion. More than 200 are known, of which the first dozen or so, the oldest and most important, are variously referred to as the principal, main or old Upanishads...
s. It is associated with the Krishna Yajurveda. It figures as number 14 in the Muktika
Muktika
The Muktikā refers to the canon of 108 upaniṣadas of the Advaita school enumerated in the Muktikopaniṣad, the 108th of which is the Muktikopaniṣad itself...
canon of 108 Upanishads. Adi Shankara
Adi Shankara
Adi Shankara Adi Shankara Adi Shankara (IAST: pronounced , (Sanskrit: , ) (788 CE - 820 CE), also known as ' and ' was an Indian philosopher from Kalady of present day Kerala who consolidated the doctrine of advaita vedānta...
called it the "Mantra Upanishad" of the Vedic
Vedic
Vedic may refer to:* the Vedas, the oldest preserved Indic texts** Vedic Sanskrit, the language of these texts** Vedic period, during which these texts were produced** Vedic pantheon of gods mentioned in Vedas/vedic period...
Shvetashvatara school in his commentary on Brahma sutras
Brahma Sutras
The Brahma sūtras , also known as Vedānta Sūtras , are one of the three canonical texts of the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy. A thorough study of Vedānta requires a close examination of these three texts, known in Sanskrit as the Prasthanatrayi, or the three starting points...
.
This Upanishad contains 113 mantras or verses in six chapters. In the last chapter the following verse is found.
This verse attributes this Upanishad
Upanishad
The Upanishads are philosophical texts considered to be an early source of Hindu religion. More than 200 are known, of which the first dozen or so, the oldest and most important, are variously referred to as the principal, main or old Upanishads...
to a sage called "Shvetashvatara" or to his line of ancient spiritual teachers. The name "Shvetashvatara" is not uncommon in Vedic literature. It means "white mule
Mule
A mule is the offspring of a male donkey and a female horse. Horses and donkeys are different species, with different numbers of chromosomes. Of the two F1 hybrids between these two species, a mule is easier to obtain than a hinny...
". The mule
Mule
A mule is the offspring of a male donkey and a female horse. Horses and donkeys are different species, with different numbers of chromosomes. Of the two F1 hybrids between these two species, a mule is easier to obtain than a hinny...
was a prized animal in ancient Vedic India. A person who owns a white horse
Horse
The horse is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus, or the wild horse. It is a single-hooved mammal belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature into the large, single-toed animal of today...
is called "Shvetashva" and one who owns a white mule can be called "Shvetashvatara". One of Arjuna
Arjuna
Arjuna in Indian mythology is the greatest warrior on earth and is one of the Pandavas, the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahābhārata. Arjuna, whose name means 'bright', 'shining', 'white' or 'silver' Arjuna (Devanagari: अर्जुन, Thai: อรชุน, Orachun, Tamil: Arjunan, Indonesian and Javanese: Harjuna,...
's names in the epic Mahabharata
Mahabharata
The Mahabharata is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India and Nepal, the other being the Ramayana. The epic is part of itihasa....
is "Shvetashva." The Rigveda
Rigveda
The Rigveda is an ancient Indian sacred collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns...
refers to "Shyavashva," meaning "One who owns a black horse."
The Shvetashvatara Upanishad is the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism
Shaivism
Shaivism is one of the four major sects of Hinduism, the others being Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Smartism. Followers of Shaivism, called "Shaivas," and also "Saivas" or "Saivites," revere Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer,...
. As explained by Gavin Flood, the text proposes:
... a theology which elevates Rudra to the status of supreme being, the Lord (Sanskrit: ) who is transcendent yet also has cosmological functions, as does Śiva in later traditions.
Commentaries
There is one commentary available on this Upanishad that is attributed to Adi ShankaraAdi Shankara
Adi Shankara Adi Shankara Adi Shankara (IAST: pronounced , (Sanskrit: , ) (788 CE - 820 CE), also known as ' and ' was an Indian philosopher from Kalady of present day Kerala who consolidated the doctrine of advaita vedānta...
, but on comparison with his other commentaries, there is some doubt that is indeed composed by him. There are three other commentators, namely Vijnanatma, Shankarananda
Shankarananda
Swami Shankarananda was the 7th president of the Ramakrishna Mission from 1952 to 1959.* RKM: President's site -...
and Narayana Tirtha.
Special features
1] The Supreme God or BrahmanBrahman
In Hinduism, Brahman is the one supreme, universal Spirit that is the origin and support of the phenomenal universe. Brahman is sometimes referred to as the Absolute or Godhead which is the Divine Ground of all being...
is called by various names such as Shiva
Shiva
Shiva is a major Hindu deity, and is the destroyer god or transformer among the Trimurti, the Hindu Trinity of the primary aspects of the divine. God Shiva is a yogi who has notice of everything that happens in the world and is the main aspect of life. Yet one with great power lives a life of a...
, Rudra
Rudra
' is a Rigvedic God, associated with wind or storm, and the hunt. The name has been translated as "The Roarer", or "The Howler"....
, etc. From this feature one might assume it was a Shaiva Upanishad, but such an assumption would be incorrect because, at the time of this Upanishad, Shaiva Agamas
Āgama (Hinduism)
Agama means, in the Hindu context, "a traditional doctrine, or system which commands faith".In Hinduism, the Agamas are a collection of Sanskrit scriptures which are revered and followed by millions of Hindus.-Significance:...
were not there. Also, at that time the Saguna Brahman, (God with attributes), used to be called by different names, each indicating a particular manifestation of Brahman
Brahman
In Hinduism, Brahman is the one supreme, universal Spirit that is the origin and support of the phenomenal universe. Brahman is sometimes referred to as the Absolute or Godhead which is the Divine Ground of all being...
.
Just as the names Shiva or Rudra are used to refer to Brahman
Brahman
In Hinduism, Brahman is the one supreme, universal Spirit that is the origin and support of the phenomenal universe. Brahman is sometimes referred to as the Absolute or Godhead which is the Divine Ground of all being...
, names such as Vayu
Vayu
Vāyu is a primary Hindu deity, the Lord of the winds, the father of Bhima and the spiritual father of Lord Hanuman...
, Aditya or Agni
Agni
Agni is a Hindu deity, one of the most important of the Vedic gods. He is the god of fire and the acceptor of sacrifices. The sacrifices made to Agni go to the deities because Agni is a messenger from and to the other gods...
are also used for same purpose in this Upanishad, rather than referring to the demigods of those names.
Moreover, if this Upanishad is indeed a Shaiva Upanishad, other sects of Hinduism
Hinduism
Hinduism is the predominant and indigenous religious tradition of the Indian Subcontinent. Hinduism is known to its followers as , amongst many other expressions...
such as Vaishnavas wouldn't have quoted its verses/mantras as authority in their respective treatises.
2] A second special feature is the prominent conception of Devotion or Bhakti
Bhakti
In Hinduism Bhakti is religious devotion in the form of active involvement of a devotee in worship of the divine.Within monotheistic Hinduism, it is the love felt by the worshipper towards the personal God, a concept expressed in Hindu theology as Svayam Bhagavan.Bhakti can be used of either...
. In other Upanishads, the concept of Bhakti is indirectly voiced in the form of Upasana
Upasana
Upasana in Sanskrit literally means "Sitting near" but normally the term is used in Hinduism to denote a prescribed method for approaching a Deity or God or getting close to a deity/deities. In the Vedas, some Upasanas are prescribed whereby one meditates on the all-pervading Brahman as some aspect...
, but here, leaving no room for guesswork, it is explicitly mentioned. The word para-bhakti is explicitly used at the end of the sixth chapter.
There are many words which voice submission to God or Brahman (words such as Sharanam, Prapadye, etc.).
This concept of devotion later found profound expression in the Bhakti Sutras and other treatises on Bhakti.
3] A third specialty of this Upanishad lies in its giving importance to the form (fullness or murtitva) of God, where Brahman is often described as formless in other important upanishads. Since it is difficult to concentrate the mind on and/or show devotion to a formless Brahman, the Shvetashvatara Upanshad ascribes various forms to God. While expounding on devotion, it also describes various characteristics or manifestations of God, such as mentioning that he has knowledge and power. This Upanishad also presents God as the creator and sustainer of the universe
Universe
The Universe is commonly defined as the totality of everything that exists, including all matter and energy, the planets, stars, galaxies, and the contents of intergalactic space. Definitions and usage vary and similar terms include the cosmos, the world and nature...
and, while describing various powers of God, drives home the point with similes such as God having thousands of heads Sahasra-sheersha – to denote God's endless knowledge, thousands of eyes – to denote God as the universal witness for everything going on in the universe and God's having thousands of feet – to indicate his omnipresence. This Upanishad mentions that God or Parama Purusha is shining in his (or "its", since the Upanishads do not ascribe gender to Brahman) glory beyond the darkness of ignorance or Tamas. God controls the material energies of the universe through his characteristic Maya
Maya (illusion)
Maya , in Indian religions, has multiple meanings, usually quoted as "illusion", centered on the fact that we do not experience the environment itself but rather a projection of it, created by us. Maya is the principal deity that manifests, perpetuates and governs the illusion and dream of duality...
or illusion of the world, but God is not bound by his Maya as humans are, because he is its controller and is capable of giving salvation to human beings.
4] A fourth specialty is the use of words such as Samkhya
Samkhya
Samkhya, also Sankhya, Sāṃkhya, or Sāṅkhya is one of the six schools of Hindu philosophy and classical Indian philosophy. Sage Kapila is traditionally considered as the founder of the Samkhya school, although no historical verification is possible...
, Kapila, yoga
Yoga
Yoga is a physical, mental, and spiritual discipline, originating in ancient India. The goal of yoga, or of the person practicing yoga, is the attainment of a state of perfect spiritual insight and tranquility while meditating on Supersoul...
and Prakriti. Some scholars suggest that this indicates an assimilation of the Sankhya-Yoga-Darshana school of thought into Vedanta
Vedanta
Vedānta was originally a word used in Hindu philosophy as a synonym for that part of the Veda texts known also as the Upanishads. The name is a morphophonological form of Veda-anta = "Veda-end" = "the appendix to the Vedic hymns." It is also speculated that "Vedānta" means "the purpose or goal...
. If this view is right, it means that the Vedantic Upanishads originated later than the Sankhya-Yoga-Darshana school of thought. This view is unjustifiable for the following reasons:
- i] Just because certain definitive words are similar, it doesn't imply that Upanishads are of later origin than Darshana schools. The definitive words like SamkhyaSamkhyaSamkhya, also Sankhya, Sāṃkhya, or Sāṅkhya is one of the six schools of Hindu philosophy and classical Indian philosophy. Sage Kapila is traditionally considered as the founder of the Samkhya school, although no historical verification is possible...
, prakriti, etc. are also used in Vedas earlier than Darshana schools. So these specific words are taken from VedantaVedantaVedānta was originally a word used in Hindu philosophy as a synonym for that part of the Veda texts known also as the Upanishads. The name is a morphophonological form of Veda-anta = "Veda-end" = "the appendix to the Vedic hymns." It is also speculated that "Vedānta" means "the purpose or goal...
and later used by proponents of Darshana schools.
- ii] The proponents of Darshanas like the sage kapila describe in their treatises that they are interpreting the Vedanta, so it means Vedantic Upanishads are of earlier origin than these schools of thought.
- iii] In this Upanishad there is not an assimilation of the principles of those schools, but to the contrary, the thoughts that are rejected by those schools are expounded and accepted using the same words and definitions of those schools.
The philosophical jargon of Samkhya
Samkhya
Samkhya, also Sankhya, Sāṃkhya, or Sāṅkhya is one of the six schools of Hindu philosophy and classical Indian philosophy. Sage Kapila is traditionally considered as the founder of the Samkhya school, although no historical verification is possible...
school of thought originated in the vedas
Vedas
The Vedas are a large body of texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism....
well before the birth of Samkhya. Originally, the word "samkhya" means counting or understanding. There are many verses in this Upanishad that have some counting of things in them; that is why the word "samkhya" was extended to mean knowledge. While Yoga
Yoga
Yoga is a physical, mental, and spiritual discipline, originating in ancient India. The goal of yoga, or of the person practicing yoga, is the attainment of a state of perfect spiritual insight and tranquility while meditating on Supersoul...
is practical, Sammkhya is intellectual. While samkhya is purely dualistic, Upanishads have a marked preference for non-dualism. In Samkhya the "Purusha" or self is different from "Prakriti" or Nature, but in Upanishadic thought Nature is a God-derived or God-dependent force. Specifically, this Upanishad refers to Prakriti as
Devatma Shakti, which can be roughly translated as "God's inner force that manifests itself as nature (Prakriti)".
One hymn of this Upanishad says,
It says this Atma Shakti of God is hidden secretly in the meditator's own inner nature.
Regarding the usage of the word "Kapila", from the context of nearby hymns to the hymn which uses the word kapila, it is clear that it does not denote the sage Kapila who is a proponent of Samkhya
Samkhya
Samkhya, also Sankhya, Sāṃkhya, or Sāṅkhya is one of the six schools of Hindu philosophy and classical Indian philosophy. Sage Kapila is traditionally considered as the founder of the Samkhya school, although no historical verification is possible...
. The hymn 5.2 which uses word "kapila" should be seen in the context of other hymns.
The 4th hymn of the 3rd chapter says,
The 12th hymn of 4th chapter says
Later, 18th hymn of 6th chapter says,
When seen in context of these hymns, the verse 5.2, which uses the word kapila, says,
In Sanskrit
Sanskrit
Sanskrit , is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.Buddhism: besides Pali, see Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Today, it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand...
, the word kapila means "golden-coloured". Hiranyagarbha means "one embodying a golden core". In the Upanishads, Hiranyagarbha also has other names such as Prajapati
Prajapati
In Hinduism, Prajapati "lord of creatures" is a Hindu deity presiding over procreation, and protector of life. He appears as a creator deity or supreme God Viswakarma Vedic deities in RV 10 and in Brahmana literature...
, Brahma
Brahma
Brahma is the Hindu god of creation and one of the Trimurti, the others being Vishnu and Shiva. According to the Brahma Purana, he is the father of Mānu, and from Mānu all human beings are descended. In the Ramayana and the...
, etc.
The second chapter of the Upanishad explores aspects of Yoga
Yoga
Yoga is a physical, mental, and spiritual discipline, originating in ancient India. The goal of yoga, or of the person practicing yoga, is the attainment of a state of perfect spiritual insight and tranquility while meditating on Supersoul...
, as verse 2.12 mentions, "When earth, water fire, air and akasa arise, when the five attributes of the elements, mentioned in the books on yoga, become manifest then the yogi's body becomes purified by the fire of yoga and he is free from illness, old age and death." . More importantly in the following verse (2.13) mentions, the "precursors of perfection in yoga", namely "lightness and healthiness of the body, absence of desire, clear complexion, pleasantness of voice, sweet odour and slight excretions".
Poetic style
Normally, Upanishads are sources of serious philosophical thought, but this Upanishad differs from other Upanishads by explaining the same principles in a simple, easy-going and poetic way. Wherever the sage Shvetashvatara has his independent hymns, he sees them in a beautiful, heart-catching, poetic way. He is not only a seer of Mantras, but also a poet from his heart.Here are few examples.
While trying to describe the omnipresence of Brahman, hymn 4.2 says,
Hymn 4.4 says
Primary resources
External links
- Shvetashvatara Upanishad in Sanskrit pdf
- Read a simple translation of Shvetashvatara Upanishad
- Sri AurobindoSri AurobindoSri Aurobindo , born Aurobindo Ghosh or Ghose , was an Indian nationalist, freedom fighter, philosopher, yogi, guru, and poet. He joined the Indian movement for freedom from British rule and for a duration became one of its most important leaders, before developing his own vision of human progress...
, The Upanishads http://www.sriaurobindoashram.info/Contents.aspx?ParentCategoryName=_StaticContent/SriAurobindoAshram/-09%20E-Library/-01%20Works%20of%20Sri%20Aurobindo/-12_The%20Upanishad_Volume-12. Sri Aurobindo AshramSri Aurobindo AshramThe Sri Aurobindo Ashram was founded by Sri Aurobindo on the 24 November 1926 . At the time there were no more than 24 disciples in the Ashram...
, Pondicherry. 1972.