Siege of Ctesiphon
Encyclopedia
The successful Siege of Ctesiphon ' onMouseout='HidePop("90576")' href="/topics/Al-Mada'in">Al-Mada'in
المدائن in Arabic
) by the Rashidun army
lasted about two months, from January to March 637. Ctesiphon, located on the east bank of the Tigris
, was one of the great cities of the Persian Empire, an imperial capital of the Arsacids and of their successors, the Sassanids. Soon after the conquest of the city by Muslims, Sassanid rule in Iraq
ended.
Ctesiphon is located approximately at Al-Mada'in
, 20 miles southeast of the modern city of Baghdad
, Iraq
, along the river Tigris. Ctesiphon measured 30 square kilometers.. The only visible remnant is the great arch Taq-i Kisra
located in what is now the Iraqi town of Salman Pak
.
decided to capture the Sassanid Persian capital city of Ctesiphon
, because as long as the Sassanids held their capital at Ctesiphon, there was always a possibility that sooner or later they could mount another counter-attack. Umar accordingly ordered Saad, the Muslim commander in chief in Iraq
, to march against Ctesiphon.
In December 636, Saad marched with a Muslim army
of 15,000 towards Ctesiphon. The Sassanian Emperor Yazdgerd III
feared that Muslims would next march against Ctesiphon. As he received the intelligence of preparation of Muslims' march against Ctesiphon he deployed detachments of whatever troops he had at capital on the main stages to the route to Ctesiphon, so that necessary arrangement could be done for the defense of the capital city. Meanwhile he hastily concentrated the survivors of the Battle of Qaddasiyyah at Ctesiphon.
Saad, when he came to know about the Sassanid detachments on the main route to Ctesiphon, decided to subjugate them. He accordingly organized a strong advance guard to overpower the Sassanid detachments; the main army would join the advance guard shortly afterwards.
For ease in movement he divided the rest of his army into four corps. Under the commanders Abdullah ibn Mutim, Shurahbeel ibn As Samt, Hashim bin Utba and Khalid bin Arfatah. Saad himself moved with the corps of Khalid bin Arfatah.
From Qadisiyya, the main stages on the route to Ctesiphon were Najaf
, Burs
, Babylon
, Sura
, Deir Kab, Kusa, Sabat.
The advance guard comprising all of the cavalry was put under the charge of Zuhra ibn Al-Hawiyya. Zuhra was directed to move to the main stages on the route to Ctesiphon and deal with the Sassanid detachments; in case of encountering any large concentration of the Sassanid army
, he was directed to wait until the main army arrived. The rest of the Muslim army was to move behind the advance guard at a comfortable pace.
The corps of Zuhra set off as the advance guard. It occupied Najaf and stayed there till the other corps reached Najaf. Then Zuhra with his corps crossed the Euphrates
and proceeded on the road to Ctesiphon. He reached Burs on the western bank of the Hilla branch of the Euphrates, where a small Sassanid force resisted; the contingent was overpowered and retreated towards Babylon.
Zuhra stayed at Burs waiting for main army to join him,. The next stage was Babylon, a fortified city where, it was learned, there was a large concentration of Sassanid forces. Babylon lay on the far bank of the Euphrates. It was also a place of strategic importance and was the gateway of the Suwad, the land between the Euphrates
and the Tigris
.
Some time in the middle of December 636, the Muslims crossed the Euphrates and camped outside Babylon. The Sassanid forces at Babylon are said to have been commanded by Feerzan, Hormuzan, Mihran and Nakheerzan.
It appears that there was disunity among the Persians, and they could not put up a stiff resistance against the Muslim charge. Hormuzan with his forces withdrew to his home province Ahwaz. On his withdrawal, the other generals also pulled back their forces and withdrew northward.
After the Persian forces had left, the citizens of Babylon formally surrendered. They were afforded protection under the usual terms of payment of jaziya. Some volunteered to cooperate with the Muslims in their fight against the Sassanid regime. They furnished a good deal of useful information about the disposition of the Persian forces. Some Babylonian engineers are said to have been employed for the construction of roads and bridges.
While the main Muslim army remained at Babylon, Zuhra was commanded by Saad to pursue the Persians who had retreated from Babylon, before they could concentrate effectively at some other place to give a combined resistance. The Muslim advance guard under Zuhra followed the Persians, and caught the Persian rear-guard at Sura, where the Sassanid forces were routed; they retreated towards Deir Kab.
Zuhra next marched to Deir Kab and defeated the Sassanid detachment again there. After which Deir Kab was occupied by the Muslims, and the people were afforded protection under the usual terms.
Zuhra waited until the main army joined him at Deir Kab. Early in January 637, the Muslim advance guard under Zuhra reached Kusa, ten miles from Ctesiphon, where Sassanid Persians were to make their last stand to delay the Muslim advance as much as they could. The Sassanid detachment there was commanded by Shahryar, who was killed in a duel with one of Muslim Mubarizun
. The rest of the Sassanid army hastily withdrew to Ctesiphon, whereupon the Muslims occupied Kusa on the usual terms. After the victory, Zuhra stayed at Kusa for some time. In the meantime main army reached Kusa. Kusa was a place of historic importance to Muslims who believed that here Nimrod
imprisoned the Prophet Abraham
, who was thrown in burning fire, out of which he had emerged unharmed. Saad wrote a detailed account of the march towards Ctesiphon.
In the second week of January 637, the Muslim advance guard reached Sabat, four miles from Ctesiphon. It was a Persian cantonment, but there was no garrison there. The residents were given protection on the usual terms of payment of jaziya. Now the entire land up to the very gates of Ctesiphon belonged to the Muslims.
the capital of Persia was not one city; it was a conglomeration of several cities. Indeed the Arabs called Ctesiphon Al-Madain, meaning the cities. The main city lay on the eastern bank of the Tigris. The part of the city on the western bank of the Tigris was known as Bahrseer.
The Muslim advance to Ctesiphon was delayed by the detachments placed on the route to Ctesiphon. That gave enough time to the Sassanids to arrange for the defense of the city, as Yazdgerd III planned. The Muslims were expected to follow the traditional route to Ctesiphon and expected to appear before Bahrseer; for this purpose, Bahrseer had been well prepared for defense, and a deep ditch had been dug round the perimeter of the suburb. As the Muslim advance guard approached Bahrseer, the Persian garrison within the fortified city hurled stones at the Muslims through ballista
s and catapult
s. The Muslims pulled back beyond the range of the projectiles and laid siege to the city.
The siege began in January 637, and dragged on for two months. The supplies from the countryside on which Bahrseer depended were entirely cut off; however it continued getting supplies from Ctesiphon across the Tigris. It was here that Muslims first used siege equipment made for them by the Persian engineers who had accepted the Muslim rule.
Some time in March 637, the Sassanid garrison called forth from the city in the determined effort to break the siege. Muslim chronicles record an interesting duel between a lion and Muslim commander Hashim, it is said that the Sassanid forces were led by a fierce lion which had been specially trained for war. The lion rushed at the Muslim front, and the Muslim horses bolted. Hashim bin Utbah is said to have rushed at the lion and delivered such a well directed blow that it fell dead. Saad the Commander-in-Chief of the Muslim forces stepped forward to kiss Hashim on the forehead as a mark of admiration for his act of unparalleled heroism.
Exactly who commanded the Sassanid army there is not certain, however Muslim chronicles record that the Sassanid commander was killed in a duel by Zuhra. Later that evening Zuhra was stuck by an arrow and the hero of the march to Ctesiphon, died. He was buried with full military honors.
After the break in fighting, a Persian emissary came to the Muslim camp to convey a message from the Persian emperor. The Persian emissary is reported to have said:
Saad, however insisted on the usual term, jaziyah or the sword. Sassanid accepted the sword.
With Ctesiphon prepared for defenses, Sassanid forces and residents of the Bahrseer withdraw to the main city the next day, destroying all bridges on the Tigris behind them. They had also taken away all the boats from the western bank of the Tigris, and anchored them on the eastern bank. Ctesiphon was guarded from its southern end by a natural barrier, river Tigris
and by now a ditch had been dug surrounding rest of the suburbs. With these arrangements Yazdgerd felt satisfied that he could resist Muslims until he managed to get sufficient reinforcement from other provinces to break the siege. The Muslim forces occupied Bahrseer; the town was empty.
Thanks to the Persian volunteers who had accepted the Muslim rule, who showed a site downstream where the river could be forded. Saad saw the site, but was not sure whether it was fit for crossing.
The next morning Saad asked for volunteers who could cross the river on horseback. First a band of six hundred volunteer horsemen under Asim ibn Amr plunged into the river to cross over to the other bank. A detachment of Sassanid cavalry was sent to intercept the approaching Muslims, and Sassanid horsemen also plunged in the river to hold back the Muslims from crossing the river. A river battle ensued. The Muslims cavalry however successfully overpowered the Persian cavalry and routed them and landed on the eastern bank of the Tigris. The first band of volunteers was immediately followed by other cavalry regiments. The infantry was probably brought to the eastern bank by the boats anchored on the shore. Sassanid forces were too few to offer an effective resistance against Muslims and thus evacuated Ctesiphon. From the river bank the Muslim forces marched to the city of Ctesiphon, led by the column of Asim ibn Amr. The Muslim columns marched through the heart of Ctesiphon. All business premises were closed. No Persians were seen, and the Muslims met no resistance. The Muslims reached the White Palace, the seat of the Persian government, and occupied it.
The capital City of Sassanid Persian Empire was thus captured by the Rashidun army
with out any major battle.
.
Emperor Yazdgerd had retreated to Hulwan
. While withdrawing the Persian emperor carried away as much of the imperial treasure and other valuable possessions as he could carry.
Saad next sent out columns in several directions to deal with the Persian stragglers. A massive booty fell into the Muslim hands.
Muslim forces conquered the Persian provinces as far as Khuzistan. The conquest however was slowed by a severe drought in Arabia in 638 and the plague in southern Iraq and Syria in 639. After this Caliph Umar wanted a break to manage the conquered territories and for then he decided to suspend the offensive. Umar is reported to have said:
The Sassanids continued the struggle to regain the lost territory. Thus a last standing Persian force was crushed at the Battle of Nihawand
, fought in December 641.
The last Persian emperor Yazdgerd III
was killed in 651AD during the reign of Caliph Uthman
. With his death Sassanid Persian empire ceased to exist.
Al-Mada'in
Al-Mada'in, meaning "The cities", is the name given to an ancient metropolis formed by Ctesiphon and Seleucia on opposite sides of the Tigris River in present-day Iraq...
المدائن in Arabic
Arabic language
Arabic is a name applied to the descendants of the Classical Arabic language of the 6th century AD, used most prominently in the Quran, the Islamic Holy Book...
) by the Rashidun army
Rashidun army
The Rashidun Caliphate Army or Rashidun army was the primary military body of the Rashidun Caliphate's armed forces during the Muslim conquests of the 7th century, serving alongside the Rashidun Navy...
lasted about two months, from January to March 637. Ctesiphon, located on the east bank of the Tigris
Tigris
The Tigris River is the eastern member of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates. The river flows south from the mountains of southeastern Turkey through Iraq.-Geography:...
, was one of the great cities of the Persian Empire, an imperial capital of the Arsacids and of their successors, the Sassanids. Soon after the conquest of the city by Muslims, Sassanid rule in Iraq
Iraq
Iraq ; officially the Republic of Iraq is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert....
ended.
Ctesiphon is located approximately at Al-Mada'in
Al-Mada'in
Al-Mada'in, meaning "The cities", is the name given to an ancient metropolis formed by Ctesiphon and Seleucia on opposite sides of the Tigris River in present-day Iraq...
, 20 miles southeast of the modern city of Baghdad
Baghdad
Baghdad is the capital of Iraq, as well as the coterminous Baghdad Governorate. The population of Baghdad in 2011 is approximately 7,216,040...
, Iraq
Iraq
Iraq ; officially the Republic of Iraq is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert....
, along the river Tigris. Ctesiphon measured 30 square kilometers.. The only visible remnant is the great arch Taq-i Kisra
Taq-i Kisra
The Tāq-e Kisrā , also called Iwān-e Kisrā , is a Sassanid-era Persian monument in Al-Mada'in which is the only visible remaining structure of the ancient city of Ctesiphon. It is near the modern town of Salman Pak, Iraq.- History :...
located in what is now the Iraqi town of Salman Pak
Salman Pak
Salman Pak is a city approximately 15 miles south of Baghdad near a peninsula formed by a broad eastward bend of the Tigris River. It is named after Salman the Persian, a companion of Muhammad who is buried there....
.
March to Ctesiphon
After the decisive victory at Battle of Qadisiyyah, Caliph UmarUmar
`Umar ibn al-Khattāb c. 2 November , was a leading companion and adviser to the Islamic prophet Muhammad who later became the second Muslim Caliph after Muhammad's death....
decided to capture the Sassanid Persian capital city of Ctesiphon
Ctesiphon
Ctesiphon, the imperial capital of the Parthian Arsacids and of the Persian Sassanids, was one of the great cities of ancient Mesopotamia.The ruins of the city are located on the east bank of the Tigris, across the river from the Hellenistic city of Seleucia...
, because as long as the Sassanids held their capital at Ctesiphon, there was always a possibility that sooner or later they could mount another counter-attack. Umar accordingly ordered Saad, the Muslim commander in chief in Iraq
Iraq
Iraq ; officially the Republic of Iraq is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert....
, to march against Ctesiphon.
In December 636, Saad marched with a Muslim army
Rashidun army
The Rashidun Caliphate Army or Rashidun army was the primary military body of the Rashidun Caliphate's armed forces during the Muslim conquests of the 7th century, serving alongside the Rashidun Navy...
of 15,000 towards Ctesiphon. The Sassanian Emperor Yazdgerd III
Yazdgerd III
Yazdegerd III or Yazdgerd III was the twenty-ninth and last king of the Sassanid dynasty of Iran and a grandson of Khosrau II . His father was Shahryar, whose mother was Miriam, the daughter of the Byzantine Emperor Maurice...
feared that Muslims would next march against Ctesiphon. As he received the intelligence of preparation of Muslims' march against Ctesiphon he deployed detachments of whatever troops he had at capital on the main stages to the route to Ctesiphon, so that necessary arrangement could be done for the defense of the capital city. Meanwhile he hastily concentrated the survivors of the Battle of Qaddasiyyah at Ctesiphon.
Saad, when he came to know about the Sassanid detachments on the main route to Ctesiphon, decided to subjugate them. He accordingly organized a strong advance guard to overpower the Sassanid detachments; the main army would join the advance guard shortly afterwards.
For ease in movement he divided the rest of his army into four corps. Under the commanders Abdullah ibn Mutim, Shurahbeel ibn As Samt, Hashim bin Utba and Khalid bin Arfatah. Saad himself moved with the corps of Khalid bin Arfatah.
From Qadisiyya, the main stages on the route to Ctesiphon were Najaf
Najaf
Najaf is a city in Iraq about 160 km south of Baghdad. Its estimated population in 2008 is 560,000 people. It is the capital of Najaf Governorate...
, Burs
BURS
BURS theory tackles the problem of taking a complex expression tree or intermediate language term and finding a good translation to machine code for a particular architecture...
, Babylon
Babylon
Babylon was an Akkadian city-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which are found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq, about 85 kilometers south of Baghdad...
, Sura
Sura
A sura is a division of the Qur'an, often referred to as a chapter. The term chapter is sometimes avoided, as the suras are of unequal length; the shortest sura has only three ayat while the longest contains 286 ayat...
, Deir Kab, Kusa, Sabat.
The advance guard comprising all of the cavalry was put under the charge of Zuhra ibn Al-Hawiyya. Zuhra was directed to move to the main stages on the route to Ctesiphon and deal with the Sassanid detachments; in case of encountering any large concentration of the Sassanid army
Sassanid army
The birth of the Sassanid army dates back to the rise of Ardashir I , the founder of the Sassanid dynasty, to the throne. Ardashir aimed at the revival of the Persian Empire, and to further this aim, he reformed the military by forming a standing army which was under his personal command and whose...
, he was directed to wait until the main army arrived. The rest of the Muslim army was to move behind the advance guard at a comfortable pace.
The corps of Zuhra set off as the advance guard. It occupied Najaf and stayed there till the other corps reached Najaf. Then Zuhra with his corps crossed the Euphrates
Euphrates
The Euphrates is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia. Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia...
and proceeded on the road to Ctesiphon. He reached Burs on the western bank of the Hilla branch of the Euphrates, where a small Sassanid force resisted; the contingent was overpowered and retreated towards Babylon.
Euphrates
The Euphrates is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia. Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia...
and the Tigris
Tigris
The Tigris River is the eastern member of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates. The river flows south from the mountains of southeastern Turkey through Iraq.-Geography:...
.
Some time in the middle of December 636, the Muslims crossed the Euphrates and camped outside Babylon. The Sassanid forces at Babylon are said to have been commanded by Feerzan, Hormuzan, Mihran and Nakheerzan.
It appears that there was disunity among the Persians, and they could not put up a stiff resistance against the Muslim charge. Hormuzan with his forces withdrew to his home province Ahwaz. On his withdrawal, the other generals also pulled back their forces and withdrew northward.
After the Persian forces had left, the citizens of Babylon formally surrendered. They were afforded protection under the usual terms of payment of jaziya. Some volunteered to cooperate with the Muslims in their fight against the Sassanid regime. They furnished a good deal of useful information about the disposition of the Persian forces. Some Babylonian engineers are said to have been employed for the construction of roads and bridges.
While the main Muslim army remained at Babylon, Zuhra was commanded by Saad to pursue the Persians who had retreated from Babylon, before they could concentrate effectively at some other place to give a combined resistance. The Muslim advance guard under Zuhra followed the Persians, and caught the Persian rear-guard at Sura, where the Sassanid forces were routed; they retreated towards Deir Kab.
Zuhra next marched to Deir Kab and defeated the Sassanid detachment again there. After which Deir Kab was occupied by the Muslims, and the people were afforded protection under the usual terms.
Zuhra waited until the main army joined him at Deir Kab. Early in January 637, the Muslim advance guard under Zuhra reached Kusa, ten miles from Ctesiphon, where Sassanid Persians were to make their last stand to delay the Muslim advance as much as they could. The Sassanid detachment there was commanded by Shahryar, who was killed in a duel with one of Muslim Mubarizun
Mubarizun
Mubarizun was the special unit of the Rashidun army. It was composed of the elite warriors, who were the champion swordsmen, lancers and archers. In that era, battles usually were preluded by duels between the champion warriors of the opposing armies...
. The rest of the Sassanid army hastily withdrew to Ctesiphon, whereupon the Muslims occupied Kusa on the usual terms. After the victory, Zuhra stayed at Kusa for some time. In the meantime main army reached Kusa. Kusa was a place of historic importance to Muslims who believed that here Nimrod
Nimrod
Nimrod means "Hunter"; was a Biblical Mesopotamian king mentioned in the Table of Nations; an eponym for the city of Nimrud.Nimrod can also refer to any of the following:*Nimród Antal, a director...
imprisoned the Prophet Abraham
Abraham
Abraham , whose birth name was Abram, is the eponym of the Abrahamic religions, among which are Judaism, Christianity and Islam...
, who was thrown in burning fire, out of which he had emerged unharmed. Saad wrote a detailed account of the march towards Ctesiphon.
In the second week of January 637, the Muslim advance guard reached Sabat, four miles from Ctesiphon. It was a Persian cantonment, but there was no garrison there. The residents were given protection on the usual terms of payment of jaziya. Now the entire land up to the very gates of Ctesiphon belonged to the Muslims.
Siege of Bahrseer
CtesiphonCtesiphon
Ctesiphon, the imperial capital of the Parthian Arsacids and of the Persian Sassanids, was one of the great cities of ancient Mesopotamia.The ruins of the city are located on the east bank of the Tigris, across the river from the Hellenistic city of Seleucia...
the capital of Persia was not one city; it was a conglomeration of several cities. Indeed the Arabs called Ctesiphon Al-Madain, meaning the cities. The main city lay on the eastern bank of the Tigris. The part of the city on the western bank of the Tigris was known as Bahrseer.
The Muslim advance to Ctesiphon was delayed by the detachments placed on the route to Ctesiphon. That gave enough time to the Sassanids to arrange for the defense of the city, as Yazdgerd III planned. The Muslims were expected to follow the traditional route to Ctesiphon and expected to appear before Bahrseer; for this purpose, Bahrseer had been well prepared for defense, and a deep ditch had been dug round the perimeter of the suburb. As the Muslim advance guard approached Bahrseer, the Persian garrison within the fortified city hurled stones at the Muslims through ballista
Ballista
The ballista , plural ballistae, was an ancient missile weapon which launched a large projectile at a distant target....
s and catapult
Catapult
A catapult is a device used to throw or hurl a projectile a great distance without the aid of explosive devices—particularly various types of ancient and medieval siege engines. Although the catapult has been used since ancient times, it has proven to be one of the most effective mechanisms during...
s. The Muslims pulled back beyond the range of the projectiles and laid siege to the city.
The siege began in January 637, and dragged on for two months. The supplies from the countryside on which Bahrseer depended were entirely cut off; however it continued getting supplies from Ctesiphon across the Tigris. It was here that Muslims first used siege equipment made for them by the Persian engineers who had accepted the Muslim rule.
Some time in March 637, the Sassanid garrison called forth from the city in the determined effort to break the siege. Muslim chronicles record an interesting duel between a lion and Muslim commander Hashim, it is said that the Sassanid forces were led by a fierce lion which had been specially trained for war. The lion rushed at the Muslim front, and the Muslim horses bolted. Hashim bin Utbah is said to have rushed at the lion and delivered such a well directed blow that it fell dead. Saad the Commander-in-Chief of the Muslim forces stepped forward to kiss Hashim on the forehead as a mark of admiration for his act of unparalleled heroism.
Exactly who commanded the Sassanid army there is not certain, however Muslim chronicles record that the Sassanid commander was killed in a duel by Zuhra. Later that evening Zuhra was stuck by an arrow and the hero of the march to Ctesiphon, died. He was buried with full military honors.
After the break in fighting, a Persian emissary came to the Muslim camp to convey a message from the Persian emperor. The Persian emissary is reported to have said:
Saad, however insisted on the usual term, jaziyah or the sword. Sassanid accepted the sword.
With Ctesiphon prepared for defenses, Sassanid forces and residents of the Bahrseer withdraw to the main city the next day, destroying all bridges on the Tigris behind them. They had also taken away all the boats from the western bank of the Tigris, and anchored them on the eastern bank. Ctesiphon was guarded from its southern end by a natural barrier, river Tigris
Tigris
The Tigris River is the eastern member of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates. The river flows south from the mountains of southeastern Turkey through Iraq.-Geography:...
and by now a ditch had been dug surrounding rest of the suburbs. With these arrangements Yazdgerd felt satisfied that he could resist Muslims until he managed to get sufficient reinforcement from other provinces to break the siege. The Muslim forces occupied Bahrseer; the town was empty.
Capture of Ctesiphon
After the occupation of Bahrseer, only the Tigris, half a mile wide, lay between the Muslims and Ctesiphon. The river was in flood and there were no means with the Muslims to cross it. In their withdrawal from Bahrseer the Persians had taken away all the boats. The Sassanid forces in Ctesiphon were commanded by Generals Mihran and Khurrazad, brother of General Rostam who had been killed in the Battle of Qaddisiyyah.Thanks to the Persian volunteers who had accepted the Muslim rule, who showed a site downstream where the river could be forded. Saad saw the site, but was not sure whether it was fit for crossing.
The next morning Saad asked for volunteers who could cross the river on horseback. First a band of six hundred volunteer horsemen under Asim ibn Amr plunged into the river to cross over to the other bank. A detachment of Sassanid cavalry was sent to intercept the approaching Muslims, and Sassanid horsemen also plunged in the river to hold back the Muslims from crossing the river. A river battle ensued. The Muslims cavalry however successfully overpowered the Persian cavalry and routed them and landed on the eastern bank of the Tigris. The first band of volunteers was immediately followed by other cavalry regiments. The infantry was probably brought to the eastern bank by the boats anchored on the shore. Sassanid forces were too few to offer an effective resistance against Muslims and thus evacuated Ctesiphon. From the river bank the Muslim forces marched to the city of Ctesiphon, led by the column of Asim ibn Amr. The Muslim columns marched through the heart of Ctesiphon. All business premises were closed. No Persians were seen, and the Muslims met no resistance. The Muslims reached the White Palace, the seat of the Persian government, and occupied it.
The capital City of Sassanid Persian Empire was thus captured by the Rashidun army
Rashidun army
The Rashidun Caliphate Army or Rashidun army was the primary military body of the Rashidun Caliphate's armed forces during the Muslim conquests of the 7th century, serving alongside the Rashidun Navy...
with out any major battle.
Aftermath
After occupying the city, Saad announced amnesty to all Persians who were in the city. A delegation of the representatives of the people waited on Saad. They sought terms, and the usual terms of jaziya were imposed. A regular peace pact was drawn up, and the citizens were called upon to follow their normal avocations. Sa'ad moved into the White Palace and established his headquarters there. The great courtyard of the palace was converted into a mosqueMosque
A mosque is a place of worship for followers of Islam. The word is likely to have entered the English language through French , from Portuguese , from Spanish , and from Berber , ultimately originating in — . The Arabic word masjid literally means a place of prostration...
.
Emperor Yazdgerd had retreated to Hulwan
Hulwan
Helwan , also spelled Hilwan or Hulwan or Holwan, is a city in Egypt on the bank of the Nile river, opposite the ruins of Memphis. Originally a southern suburb of Cairo, it served as the capital of the now defunct Helwan Governorate from April 2008 to April 2011, after which it was re-incorporated...
. While withdrawing the Persian emperor carried away as much of the imperial treasure and other valuable possessions as he could carry.
Saad next sent out columns in several directions to deal with the Persian stragglers. A massive booty fell into the Muslim hands.
Muslim forces conquered the Persian provinces as far as Khuzistan. The conquest however was slowed by a severe drought in Arabia in 638 and the plague in southern Iraq and Syria in 639. After this Caliph Umar wanted a break to manage the conquered territories and for then he decided to suspend the offensive. Umar is reported to have said:
The Sassanids continued the struggle to regain the lost territory. Thus a last standing Persian force was crushed at the Battle of Nihawand
Battle of Nihawand
The Battle of Nahāvand Battle of Nahāwand was fought in 642 between Arab Muslims and Sassanid armies. The battle is known to Muslims as the "Victory of Victories." The History of Tabari mentions that Firuzan, the officer serving the Persian King Yazdgerd III had about 50,000 men, versus a Muslim...
, fought in December 641.
The last Persian emperor Yazdgerd III
Yazdgerd III
Yazdegerd III or Yazdgerd III was the twenty-ninth and last king of the Sassanid dynasty of Iran and a grandson of Khosrau II . His father was Shahryar, whose mother was Miriam, the daughter of the Byzantine Emperor Maurice...
was killed in 651AD during the reign of Caliph Uthman
Uthman
Uthman ibn Affan was one of the companions of Islamic prophet, Muhammad. He played a major role in early Islamic history as the third Sunni Rashidun or Rightly Guided Caliph....
. With his death Sassanid Persian empire ceased to exist.
See also
- Modern usage of al-QādisiyyahModern usage of al-QadisiyyahThe Battle of al-Qādisiyyah was the decisive engagement between the Arab Muslim army and the Sassanid Persian army during the first period of Muslim expansion which resulted in the Islamic conquest of Persia.- Modern usage of al-Qādisiyyah :...
- Islamic conquest of PersiaIslamic conquest of PersiaThe Muslim conquest of Persia led to the end of the Sassanid Empire in 644, the fall of Sassanid dynasty in 651 and the eventual decline of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia...
- Muslim conquestsMuslim conquestsMuslim conquests also referred to as the Islamic conquests or Arab conquests, began with the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He established a new unified polity in the Arabian Peninsula which under the subsequent Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates saw a century of rapid expansion of Muslim power.They...
- Sassanid EmpireSassanid EmpireThe Sassanid Empire , known to its inhabitants as Ērānshahr and Ērān in Middle Persian and resulting in the New Persian terms Iranshahr and Iran , was the last pre-Islamic Persian Empire, ruled by the Sasanian Dynasty from 224 to 651...
- Rashidun CaliphateRashidun CaliphateThe Rashidun Caliphate , comprising the first four caliphs in Islam's history, was founded after Muhammad's death in 632, Year 10 A.H.. At its height, the Caliphate extended from the Arabian Peninsula, to the Levant, Caucasus and North Africa in the west, to the Iranian highlands and Central Asia...
- Rashidun armyRashidun armyThe Rashidun Caliphate Army or Rashidun army was the primary military body of the Rashidun Caliphate's armed forces during the Muslim conquests of the 7th century, serving alongside the Rashidun Navy...
- Shāh-nāmehShahnamehThe Shahnameh or Shah-nama is a long epic poem written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi between c.977 and 1010 AD and is the national epic of Iran and related societies...
Sources
- Rosenthal, Franz, The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History By Ibn Khaldūn, N. J.. Dawoodb, 1967
Further reading
- Ashtiani, Abbas Iqbal and Pirnia, Hassan. Tarikh-e Iran (History of Iran), 3rd ed. TehranTehranTehran , sometimes spelled Teheran, is the capital of Iran and Tehran Province. With an estimated population of 8,429,807; it is also Iran's largest urban area and city, one of the largest cities in Western Asia, and is the world's 19th largest city.In the 20th century, Tehran was subject to...
: Kayyam Publishing House, 1973. - at-TabarīMuhammad ibn Jarir al-TabariAbu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari was a prominent and influential Sunni scholar and exegete of the Qur'an from Persia...
, Abū Ja`far Muhammad. The Battle of al-Qādisiyyah and the conquest of Syria and Palestine. Edited and translated by Yohanan FriedmannYohanan Friedmann-Biography:Friedmann was born in Zákamenné, Czechoslovakia and immigrated to Israel with his parents in 1949. He attended high school at the Reali School in Haifa . In 1956 he began his undergraduate studies at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Department of Arabic Language and Literature,...
. SUNY series in Near Eastern studies. Albany: State University of New YorkState University of New YorkThe State University of New York, abbreviated SUNY , is a system of public institutions of higher education in New York, United States. It is the largest comprehensive system of universities, colleges, and community colleges in the United States, with a total enrollment of 465,000 students, plus...
Press, 1992.