Sinai and Palestine Campaign - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

The Sinai and Palestine Campaigns took place in the Middle Eastern Theatre of World War I

Middle Eastern theatre of World War I

The Middle Eastern theatre of World War I was the scene of action between 29 October 1914, and 30 October 1918. The combatants were the Ottoman Empire, with some assistance from the other Central Powers, and primarily the British and the Russians among the Allies of World War I...

. A series of battles were fought between British Empire

British Empire

The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the...

, German Empire

German Empire

The German Empire refers to Germany during the "Second Reich" period from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871, to 1918, when it became a federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of the Emperor, Wilhelm II.The German...

and Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

forces from 26 January 1915 to 31 October 1918, when the Armistice of Mudros

Armistice of Mudros

The Armistice of Moudros , concluded on 30 October 1918, ended the hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies of World War I...

was signed between the Ottoman Empire and the Entente Powers

Allies of World War I

The Entente Powers were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. The members of the Triple Entente were the United Kingdom, France, and the Russian Empire; Italy entered the war on their side in 1915...

.

On 26 January 1915, an Ottoman force invaded the Sultanate of Egypt

Sultanate of Egypt

The Sultanate of Egypt is the name of the short-lived protectorate that the United Kingdom imposed over Egypt between 1914 and 1922.-History:...

, a British protectorate

Protectorate

In history, the term protectorate has two different meanings. In its earliest inception, which has been adopted by modern international law, it is an autonomous territory that is protected diplomatically or militarily against third parties by a stronger state or entity...

, and unsuccessfully attempted to interrupt the vital supply line running through the Suez Canal

Suez Canal

The Suez Canal , also known by the nickname "The Highway to India", is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without navigation...

. Early in 1916 British Empire units began to push their defences of the Suez Canal into the Sinai Peninsula

Sinai Peninsula

The Sinai Peninsula or Sinai is a triangular peninsula in Egypt about in area. It is situated between the Mediterranean Sea to the north, and the Red Sea to the south, and is the only part of Egyptian territory located in Asia as opposed to Africa, effectively serving as a land bridge between two...

. Several engagements were fought about Katia

Affair of Katia

The Battle of Katia was an engagement fought east of the Suez Canal and north of El Ferdan Station, in the vicinity of Katia and Oghratina, on 23 April 1916 during the Defence of the Suez Canal Campaign of World War I...

and other oases. In August 1916 two British Empire divisions at Romani

Battle of Romani

The Battle of Romani was fought east of the Suez Canal, near the Egyptian town of Romani and the site of ancient Pelusium on the Sinai Peninsula during the First World War...

were attacked by a substantial Ottoman army which was defeated. These two divisions; the Anzac Mounted Division

Anzac Mounted Division

The ANZAC Mounted Division was a mounted infantry and mounted rifles division formed in March 1916 in Egypt during World War I following the Battle of Gallipoli when the Australian and New Zealand regiments returned from fighting dismounted as infantry...

and the 52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division pushed on across the northern Sinai fighting a substantial Ottoman rearguard at Bir el Abd, and Ottoman garrisons at Magdhaba

Battle of Magdhaba

The Battle of Magdhaba took place on 23 December 1916 south and east of Bir Lahfan in the Sinai desert, some inland from the Mediterranean coast and the town of El Arish...

and Rafa

Battle of Rafa

The Battle of Rafa took place on 9 January 1917 at el Magruntein to the south of Rafa, close to the frontier between the Sultanate of Egypt's Sinai Peninsula and the Ottoman Empire, and in the area to the north and east of Sheikh Zowaiid...

(on the border of Egypt and the Ottoman Empire).

In 1917 British Empire forces extended their area of operation into Ottoman Palestine fighting two unsuccessful battles at Gaza

Gaza

Gaza , also referred to as Gaza City, is a Palestinian city in the Gaza Strip, with a population of about 450,000, making it the largest city in the Palestinian territories.Inhabited since at least the 15th century BC,...

in March and April. At the end of October, after six months of preparations, reconnaissances and minor operations the Egyptian Expeditionary Force

Egyptian Expeditionary Force

The Egyptian Expeditionary Force was formed in March 1916 to command the British and British Empire military forces in Egypt during World War I. Originally known as the 'Force in Egypt' it had been commanded by General Maxwell who was recalled to England...

succeeded in capturing Beersheba and a week later the whole Gaza to Beersheba line. Subsequently this force conducted a fighting advance northwards to Jaffa

Jaffa

Jaffa is an ancient port city believed to be one of the oldest in the world. Jaffa was incorporated with Tel Aviv creating the city of Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel. Jaffa is famous for its association with the biblical story of the prophet Jonah.-Etymology:...

by mid November and into the Judean Hills, capturing Jerusalem early in December 1917.

In February 1918 Jericho

Jericho

Jericho ; is a city located near the Jordan River in the West Bank of the Palestinian territories. It is the capital of the Jericho Governorate and has a population of more than 20,000. Situated well below sea level on an east-west route north of the Dead Sea, Jericho is the lowest permanently...

was captured beginning the seven month's long occupation of the Jordan Valley

Jordan Rift Valley

The Jordan Rift Valley is an elongated depression located in modern-day Israel, Jordan and the Palestinian territories. This geographic region includes the Jordan River, Jordan Valley, Hula Valley, Lake Tiberias and the Dead Sea, the lowest land elevation on Earth...

.
During this occupation a British Empire force advanced eastwards into the hills of Moab to attach Ottoman lines of communication at Amman

Amman

Amman is the capital of Jordan. It is the country's political, cultural and commercial centre and one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. The Greater Amman area has a population of 2,842,629 as of 2010. The population of Amman is expected to jump from 2.8 million to almost...

at the end of March and at the end of April another force advanced eastwards to capture Es Salt. The territory captured during both these operations could not be held and they ended in the withdrawal of all British Empire forces to the Jordan Valley. In mid September 1918 Amman was again attacked when the town and substantial Ottoman army prisoners in the area were captured. At the same time the main attack on the Mediterranean coast drove northwards at great speed cutting off and capturing substantial Ottoman army units in the Judean Hills and beyond. Several substantial rearguard positions were attacked and defeated before Damascus

Damascus

Damascus , commonly known in Syria as Al Sham , and as the City of Jasmine , is the capital and the second largest city of Syria after Aleppo, both are part of the country's 14 governorates. In addition to being one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Damascus is a major...

was captured. British Empire units pushed northwards to reach Aleppo

Aleppo

Aleppo is the largest city in Syria and the capital of Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Syrian governorate. With an official population of 2,301,570 , expanding to over 2.5 million in the metropolitan area, it is also one of the largest cities in the Levant...

by the time the Armistice with the Ottoman Empire was signed.

Defence of the Suez Canal

Egypt had been part of the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

for 400 years until Britain gained control by force of arms in the late 19th Century when a British protectorate was over the country. Soon after the beginning of the First World War the Ottoman Empire, with encouragement from the German Empire

German Empire

that it was keen to be reinstated in Egypt. The Suez Canal

Suez Canal

was the main objective but unrest was also fomented by the German backed Senussi

Senussi

The Senussi or Sanussi refers to a Muslim political-religious order in Libya and the Sudan region founded in Mecca in 1837 by the Grand Senussi, Sayyid Muhammad ibn Ali as-Senussi. Senussi was concerned with both the decline of Islamic thought and spirituality and the weakening of Muslim political...

to the west of Cairo in the desert and to the south in Sudan where the Senussi Campaign was fought.

Defence of Egypt the Eastern Frontier, 1914–1915

The Commander–in–Chief of the British Protectorate of Egypt, Major–General Sir John Maxwell

John Maxwell (British Army officer)

General Sir John Grenfell Maxwell GCB, KCMG, CVO, DSO, PC was a British Army officer and colonial governor. He served in the Mahdist War in the Sudan, the Boer War, and in the First World War, but he is best known for his role in the suppression of the 1916 Easter Rising in Ireland and subsequent...

, who had previously served in Egypt (having fought at the Battle of Tel el-Kebir in 1882), and in the Sudan in 1885 and 1898, described his appointment and the situation in Egypt when he arrived:
The Suez Canal very quickly became of great importance to both sides. To Germany and the Ottoman Empire the canal represented the closest and weakest link in British communications. To the British the Canal was of vital strategic importance. Instead of having to travel around the Cape of Good Hope, the Suez Canal cut the travelling time from Britain to India, New Zealand and Australia. In addition to facilitating the supporting of the British war effort in the European sector by the Colonies and Dominions, it was also a major base particularly during the Gallipoli campaign.

However at the beginning of the war, defence of the Suez Canal posed a number of problems. There was no road to the canal from Cairo

Cairo

Cairo , is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in the Arab world and Africa, and the 16th largest metropolitan area in the world. Nicknamed "The City of a Thousand Minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture, Cairo has long been a centre of the region's political and cultural life...

, only one railway track crossed the 30 miles (48.3 km) of desert from Cairo to Ismaïlia

Ismaïlia

-Notable natives:*Osman Ahmed Osman, a famous and influential Egyptian engineer, contractor, entrepreneur, and politician, was born in this town on 6 April 1917....

on the Canal before branching north to Port Said

Port Said

Port Said is a city that lies in north east Egypt extending about 30 km along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, north of the Suez Canal, with an approximate population of 603,787...

and south to Suez

Suez

Suez is a seaport city in north-eastern Egypt, located on the north coast of the Gulf of Suez , near the southern terminus of the Suez Canal, having the same boundaries as Suez governorate. It has three harbors, Adabya, Ain Sokhna and Port Tawfiq, and extensive port facilities...

. These three Canal towns relied on fresh water from the Nile

Nile

The Nile is a major north-flowing river in North Africa, generally regarded as the longest river in the world. It is long. It runs through the ten countries of Sudan, South Sudan, Burundi, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda and Egypt.The Nile has two major...

via the Sweetwater Canal to the main gates and sluices near Ismailia, making control of the central area around Ismailia of great strategic importance. At the beginning of the war, the Sinai Peninsula

Sinai Peninsula

was policed by a token defence force which very quickly evacuated the area at the beginning of hostilities between Britain and the Ottoman Empire, in November 1914.

The 30,000 strong defenders of the Suez Canal consisted of the 10th Indian Division

10th Indian Division

The 10th Indian Division was a formation of the British Indian Army during World War I. It was the basis of Indian Expeditionary Force F which served in Egypt and was disbanded in March 1915....

and 11th Indian Division

11th Indian Division

The 11th Indian Division was formed in Egypt in 1914, to defend the Suez Canal. It was one of two divisions in the Indian Expeditionary Force F....

, the Indian Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade, the Bikaner Camel Corps

Bikaner Camel Corps

The Bikaner Camel Corps was a unit of Imperial Service Troops from India that fought for the allies in World War I and World War II.The Corps was founded by Maharaja Ganga Singh of the Indian state of Bikaner, as the Ganga Risala after the British government of India accepted his offer to raise a...

, three batteries of Indian mountain artillery and one Egyptian battery supported by the guns of Allied shipping in the canal. This force was required to defend the Canal from damage or destruction along its entire length, with their main defences mounted on the western or Cairo side of the canal.

Ottoman advance towards the Suez Canal

At the urging of their German ally, the Ottomans mounted an attack against the British and Egyptian forces in Egypt to shut the Suez Canal in the First Suez Offensive

First Suez Offensive

The First Suez Offensive took place between the Ottoman Empire and the British Empire in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War I...

.

The Bavarian Colonel Kress von Kressenstein had been appointed Chief of Staff of the 8th Corps on arrival from Constantinople on 18 November 1914. The 8th Corps comprised the 8th, 10th, 23rd, 25th, and 27th Infantry Divisions and contingents of Sinai Bedouins, Druzes, Kurds, Mohadjirs, Circassians from Syria and Arabs. The role of these contingents of Muslims was to foment revolt against the British in Egypt. In January 1915 von Kressenstein's force concentrated 20,000 men in southern Palestine with nine field batteries and one 5.9 inch howitzer. The force which was to cross the Sinai comprised the 10th Infantry Division and a cavalry regiment and the first echelon of about 13,000 men including the 23rd, 25th and 27th Infantry Divisions with 1,500 Arabs, eight batteries of field artillery. A second echelon of 12,000 men was made up of 20th and 23rd Infantry Divisions. The Ottoman plan was for a single infantry division to capture Ismailia and cross the canal before being reinforced by a second infantry division which would be supported on the east bank of the canal by two additional divisions. A further division would be available to reinforce the bridgehad on the west bank of the Suez Canal.
In order to move large numbers of troops quickly and resupply them more effectively the railway was pushed to the southern border of the Ottoman Empire on the Egyptian frontier. Railhead had reached Sileh during the autumn of 1914 about 275 miles (442.6 km) from the Suez Canal. (By May 1916 it was extended to Beersheba and El Auja.) The force moved south by rail, continuing on foot via el Auja carrying iron pontoons for crossing and attacking the Suez Canal at Serapeum and Tussum. On 13 January 1915 it was known to the British that strong columns were passing through el Auja and El Arish. The force move from towards the Suez Canal in three echelons; the main group along the central route with smaller forces on the northern and southern routes.

The northern group of about 3,000 men moved via Magdhaba

Battle of Magdhaba

The Battle of Magdhaba took place on 23 December 1916 south and east of Bir Lahfan in the Sinai desert, some inland from the Mediterranean coast and the town of El Arish...

to El Arish and thence along the northern route towards Port Said. The central group of about 6,000 or 7,000 men moved via the water cisterns at Moiya Harab and the wells at Wady um Muksheib and Jifjafa towards Ismailia. This was at the mid point of the Suez Canal where the railway and vital water pumping equipment which sustained the towns and the troops defending the Canal, were located. Without this infrastructure a defence of the Canal would be very difficult. The third group of about 3,000 moved via Nekl southwards towards the town of Suez at the southern end of the Suez Canal.The actual size of the Ottoman force von Kressenstein lead across the Sinai in January 1915 is difficult to gauge from the numbers provided; 50,000 became 25,000 then 20,000 and finally between 10,000 and 12,000 but it may have in fact been 25,000 strong.

First Suez Offensive

Fighting began on 26 and 27 January 1915 when two smaller flanking columns of the Ottoman Army made secondary attacks near Kantara in the northern sector of the Suez Canal and near the town of Suez in the south. The main fighting also known as 'Actions on the Suez Canal' occurred east of the Suez – Kantara Railway from 3 to 4 February 1915.

The Ottoman Expeditionary Force, moving only in the night, was confident that it had been unnoticed, as the advance scouts had observed british officers playing football, when Ottoman forces already established themselves in a camp 25 kilometers east of the Suez Canal. Kress von Kressenstein's Ottoman Suez Expeditionary Force arrived at the Canal on 2 February 1915 and the main attacks occurred in the center of the Suez Canal about Ismailia on the morning of 3 February 1915 when the Ottomans were successful in crossing the canal.
The attacks failed to surprise the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade and the Bikanir Camel Corps who were on garrison duty along the canal. The Indian defenders stopped von Kressenstein's force from establishing themselves on the western side of the Suez Canal, suffering casualties of about 150 men. Only two turkish companies successfully crossed the canal, the rest of the advance party abandoned all attempts to cross, once the british side opened fire. Once alarmed, the British amassed troops at the scene which made another crossing impossible. The Ottoman forces held their positions until the evening of 3 February 1915, when the commanding officer ordered the retreat. The retreat proceeded "orderly, first into a camp ten km east of Ismailia", and the British did not pursue them until they were out of reach.

The Ottoman Suez Expeditionary Force suffered the loss of some 1,500 men including 716 prisoners. It had been at the end of its supply lines

Lines of Communication

"Lines of Communication" is an episode from the fourth season of the science-fiction television series Babylon 5.-Synopsis:Franklin and Marcus attempt to persuade the Mars resistance to assist Sheridan in opposing President Clark...

by the time it reached the Suez Canal. The "forcible reconnaissance" led the Staff of Fourth Army

Fourth Army (Ottoman Empire)

The Fourth Army of the Ottoman Empire was one of the field armies of the Ottoman Army. It was formed in the middle nineteenth century, during Ottoman military reforms.-Order of Battle, 1877:In 1877, it was stationed in Anatolia...

to the realization of the difficulties that would wait for further expeditions to Egypt and the heavily fortified canal. They decided to only maintain advance troops and outposts on the Sinai peninsula on a line between El Arish and Nekhl in order to unsettle the British, while the main forces were to stay at Gaza and Bersheba. Von Kressenstein received mobile units accordingly, to launch a series of raids and attacks to disturb traffic on the Suez Canal.

Improvements to Suez Canal Defences

In November 1915, Lord Kitchener

Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener

Field Marshal Horatio Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener KG, KP, GCB, OM, GCSI, GCMG, GCIE, ADC, PC , was an Irish-born British Field Marshal and proconsul who won fame for his imperial campaigns and later played a central role in the early part of the First World War, although he died halfway...

, the, Secretary of State for War

Secretary of State for War

The position of Secretary of State for War, commonly called War Secretary, was a British cabinet-level position, first held by Henry Dundas . In 1801 the post became that of Secretary of State for War and the Colonies. The position was re-instated in 1854...

had identified the weakness of defending the Suez Canal from the western side of the canal, and von Kressenstein's raiding parties confirmed it. However it was not until towards the end of 1915, as the Gallipoli campaign was drawing to its conclusion, that the War Cabinet in London authorised new positions to be established about 11000 yards (10.1 km) east of the Canal in the desert, to strengthen defence of the canal against long range guns, and to provide additional troops.
Port Said became Headquarters of these new defences, with an Advanced Headquarters at Kantara. The defences were organised into three sectors:

No. 1 (Southern): Suez to Kabrit HQ Suez – IX Corps
No. 2 (Central): Kabrit to Ferdan HQ Ismailia – I Anzac Corps
I Anzac Corps
The I ANZAC Corps was a combined Australian and New Zealand army corps that served during World War I.It was formed in Egypt in February 1916 as part of the reorganisation and expansion of the Australian Imperial Force and the New Zealand Expeditionary Force following the evacuation of Gallipoli...
No. 3 (Northern): Ferdan to Port Said – XV Corps

Further Ottoman operations in Sinai

Colonel Kreß von Kressenstein stayed commander of Ottoman forces on the Sinai Peninsula. His tasks were to keep the British forces occupied and to prepare another expedition against the Canal. To achieve the latter, he demanded for German special forces, which were promised to arrive in February 1916. In the meantime he did all he could to embarrass the British. Notable attacks took place on 8 April 1915 with a mine

Naval mine

A naval mine is a self-contained explosive device placed in water to destroy surface ships or submarines. Unlike depth charges, mines are deposited and left to wait until they are triggered by the approach of, or contact with, an enemy vessel...

that was placed in the Canal, but disabled by a patrol, and on 5 May to 13 May 1915 with a charge led personally by von Kressenstein. Since the continuous advances and retreats demoralized the Syrian auxiliaries, these tactics were abandoned soon. Von Kressenstein moved to the headquarters of the 4th Army

Fourth Army (Ottoman Empire)

in Ain Sofar in August, then to the new headquarters in Jerusalem, and waited for the German specialists for a serious advance on the Suez Canals defenses.

Forward Defence of Suez Canal, 1916

At the end of 1915 General Sir John Maxwell commanded the Force in Egypt with headquarters at Cairo. He was responsible for troops in the Egyptian Delta, the Western Desert and the Sudan and administered martial law over the whole region including the Suez Canal. The British War Office was responsible for the Levant Base which was responsible for the British Empire forces in Salonika, Gallipoli, Mesopotamia and India had its headquarters at Alexandria. The retreating forces on Gallipoli and divisions from the United Kingdom formed the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force commanded by Lieutenant General Sir Archibald Murray

Archibald Murray

General Sir Archibald James Murray, GCMG, KCB, CVO, DSO was a British Army officer during World War I, most famous for his commanding the Egyptian Expeditionary Force from 1916 to 1917.-Army career:...

had his headquarters at Ismailia. After the evacuation from Gallipoli the total British force in Egypt was nearly 400,000 men in 13 infantry and mounted divisions; this force was regarded as the strategic reserve for the whole Empire. In March 1916 Sir Archibald Murray took command of all these forces which were united into the new Egyptian Expeditionary Force

Egyptian Expeditionary Force

.
Murray believed a more cost effective defence of the Suez Canal than the static defences recently established, would be a British advance into the Sinai to establish long term occupation of Qatiya/Katia. This was agreed to by the War Office but they did not agree to his more ambition plan to advance to the border with the Ottoman Empire. He believed that the area captured in an advance to El Arish or Rafa could be held with fewer troops than would be needed for a passive defence of the Suez Canal. Murray had estimated a force of 250,000 could cross the Sinai and that 80,000 troops could be maintained in the Katia area. If such a large Ottoman force were to reach Katia then the British would need a very large force to defend the Suez Canal. War Office policy in March 1916 was to withdraw as many troops as possible from Salonika, remain disengaged in the Balkans, keep Egypt secure and 'to keep a reserve in Egypt for India as long as it seems likely to be required' and get everyone else to France. [Bruce 2002, pp. 35–6] The British decision to occupy the oasis area which stretched eastwards from Romani and Katia to Bir el Abd along the ancient silk road would deny this valuable area of reliable drinking water to the Ottoman Empire with its potential to sustain a large invasion force.

Murray planned a 50,000 strong garrison in the Katia area and obtained authority to build a pipeline to pump fresh Nile water and a railway to transport the infantry divisions and the large quantities of supplies required to sustain these troops. He also decided to empty the water cisterns at Moya Harab so the central Sinai route could not again be used by Ottoman columns advancing from Palestine and to maintain some troops at Suez to defend the town. These operation began in February 1916 when construction started on the 25 miles (40.2 km) stretch of 4 foot 8 inch standard gauge Sinai railway and water pipeline from Qantara/Kantara to Qatiya/Katia. By the end of March or early in April 16 miles (25.7 km) of track including sidings had been laid.

Sykes Picot

When the possibility of an invasion of the Ottoman Empire territory of Palestine by the British was first mooted, it became necessary for the British to reach an understanding with France as the French had an interest in Palestine and Syria, to delimit the extent of French and British territorial interests. Sir Mark Sykes, who had made a study of the political problems of Mesopotamia and Syria, and M. Picot, formerly a French Consul at Beirut, were empowered to confer. They concluded their negotiations on 16 May 1916 agreeing to Britain accepting Palestine and the French, Syria. They agreed that a French contingent of all arms would be attached to the Egyptian Expeditionary Force.

Destruction of water

As long as the water cistern and wells on the central road remained intact, the enemy could move across the Sinai Peninsula to threaten the Canal at any time. Between 11 and 15 April 25 Bikaner Camel Corps, 10 Engineers with 12 men from 8th Light Horse Regiment and 117 men from 9th Light Horse (30 light horsemen armed as Lancers) Regiment, with 127 Egyptian Camel Transport Corps travelled 52 miles (83.7 km) to destroyed a well-boring plant, gyn

Gyn

A gyn is a form of three legged lifting device used on sailing ships. It provides more stability than a derrick or sheers, and requires no rigging for support. However, it can only be used for lifting things directly up and down...

s erected on the wells, the water wells and pumping equipment at Jifjafa. In the process they captured an Austrian engineer officer and 33 men, four of whom were wounded, and killed six Ottoman soldiers. On 9 June 1916 units from No. 2 Section of the Canal Defences formed the Mukhsheib column, consisting of part of the 3rd Light Horse Brigade, 900 camels, non fighting units and camel transport escorted by one squadron of 9th Light Horse Regiment and 10 Bikaner Camel Corps. The engineers drained pools and cisterns of five million gallons of water in the Wadi Mukhsheib, sealed the cisterns to prevent them refilling during next season's rains and returned on 14 June. At the same time a detachment of Middlesex Yeomanry advanced to Moiya Harab. As a result the central Sinai route became impossible and the area where Ottoman offensives might be expected narrowed down to the coastal or northern route.

Sinai campaign begins

A surprise attack by a force commanded by Kress von Kressenstein occurred on Easter Sunday, also St George's Day, 23 April 1916, east of the Canal and north of El Ferdan Station. The 5th Mounted Brigade Yeomanry

Yeomanry

Yeomanry is a designation used by a number of units or sub-units of the British Territorial Army, descended from volunteer cavalry regiments. Today, Yeomanry units may serve in a variety of different military roles.-History:...

had been sent to guard the water pipeline and railway being built out into the desert towards Romani. During the day, the widely scattered regiments and squadrons, were surprised and overwhelmed by at Katia and Oghratina east of Romani. The three regiments suffered the loss of about two squadrons.

Occupation of Romani

The Affair of Katia

Affair of Katia

reinforced the strategic importance of this oases area; it could support large amounts of troops which could threaten the Suez Canal, or the Sinai Peninsula. Neither side could afford to ignore such a large force in this area as a force would always be threatened by a flank attack

Flanking maneuver

In military tactics, a flanking maneuver, also called a flank attack, is an attack on the sides of an opposing force. If a flanking maneuver succeeds, the opposing force would be surrounded from two or more directions, which significantly reduces the maneuverability of the outflanked force and its...

. The Australian 2nd Light Horse Brigade and New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigades of General Chauvel's Anzac Mounted Division

Anzac Mounted Division

were ordered to occupy the Romani area the day after the fighting at Katia and Ogratina. Here, 23 miles (37 km) from Kantara, they engaged in aggressive patrolling and reconnaissance work. The Australian 1st Light Horse Brigade arrived at Romani on 28 May 1916.
The problems of occupation in this forward position on the edge of the huge sand dunes in the desert were great. Camel transport of the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps supplied all water, food, shelters, other goods, equipment and ammunition, until the railway and water pipeline were constructed to Pelusium Station and Romani. Bully beef and biscuits was the ration in this forward area, as badly packed and poorly supervised methods of transporting fresh meat and vegetables resulted in them arriving at Romani in a putrid condition.

Other problems included flies attracted to horse litter, etc. and the constant battle to provide safe sanitary arrangements and disposal of garbage. To burn refuse, incinerators were constructed by stacking used bully beef tins filled with sand. During this period, poor diet, severe weather conditions, precious little shelter from the sun and virtually non-existent comfortable rest periods, were combined with constant patrol work.
In mid May 1916 the railway was completed to Romani. Much greater quantities of stores and equipment could be transported to the forward position and it was possible for the 52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division to be deployed at Romani. As soon as they arrived they began work, digging trenches in the sand to create a defensive line with redoubts, stretching south from Mahemdia near the Mediterranean coast to Katib Gannit a high point in front of Romani.

All this military activity on the western edge of the strategically sensitive oases area, from Bir el Abd to Romani, brought reprisal in the form of a bombing raid by Ottoman airplanes, the first of many, at the beginning of June. Eight troopers of the 1st Light Horse Brigade were killed and 22 wounded. About 100 horses were lost. At this time the forward Ottoman air base was at Bir el Mazar, 42 miles (67.6 km) east of Romani.

Reconnaissances, May to June 1916

Early reconnaissances by the Anzac Mounted Division covered considerable distances from Romani as far as Ogratina, to Bir el Abd and Bir Bayud. The longest raid was made by the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade to Salmana, covering 100 kilometres (62.1 mi) in 36 hours.

But conditions on the ground in the Sinai desert were extreme; after the middle of May and in particular from mid June to the end of July the heat in the Sinai desert ranged from extreme to fierce. The terrible heat was not so bad as the shocking Khamsin

Khamsin

Khamsin, khamseen, chamsin or hamsin , also known as khamaseen refers to a dry, hot and dusty local wind blowing in North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. Similar winds in the area are sirocco and simoom...

dust storms which blow once every 50 days for a few hours or several days; the atmosphere is turned into a haze of floating sand particles flung about by a hot southerly wind.

During these early patrols and reconnaissances the troops and their commanders, unused to the conditions, suffered considerably from heatstroke and thirst. One such patrol, returning during the hottest part of the day after a sleepless night far from base, and very little water, suffered casualties of 160 men who collapsed from heat exhaustion.

On all these patrols nothing but camel transport was used; all wheeled wagons were based at Kantara, (under Major Smith) where they conveyed the supplies of the Anzac Mounted Division from the main railway station at Kantara to the military railway on the other side of the Suez Canal. The wagons were pulled by teams of mules, two in the pole and three in the lead, driven by one man from the box.

An important innovation in the getting of water, which enabled the mounted units to operate more effectively over wide areas of rocky desert areas and sand dunes on reconnaissance, was the Spear Point, developed by Australian Engineers designed to be attached to a pump:

A 2 ½ inch pipe was pointed, perforated and covered with a sheet of fine perforated brass. This was driven down into the water area by means of a small pulley bar and monkey, or by a sledge–hammer; and additional lengths of pipe were added if necessary. The ordinary General Service "Lift and Force Pump" was then attached. This arrangement proved so efficient that "Spear Points" were issued to every Squadron in the Division, and the RE Troops carried a number of them. Our men were thus enabled to get water at any of the hods in the desert in a very short space of time.

Once the brackish water was found, a medical officer assessed it as either drinking water, horse water or not fit for horses, and signs were erected.
In June the 1st Light Horse Brigade carried out reconnaissances to Bir Bayud, Sagia and Ogratina, to Bir el Abd, Hod el Ge'eila, Hod um el Dhauanin and Hod el Mushalfat. Another routine reconnaissance by 2nd Light Horse Brigade took place on 9 July to El Salmana. Just ten days later, El Salmana was occupied by the Ottomans as they concentrated for the Battle of Romani

Battle of Romani

The Battle of Romani was fought east of the Suez Canal, near the Egyptian town of Romani and the site of ancient Pelusium on the Sinai Peninsula during the First World War...

.

In the middle of June the No. 1 Australian Squadron, Australian Flying Corps began active service with "B" Flight at Suez doing reconnaissance work and on 9 July "A" Flight was stationed at Sherika in Upper Egypt with "C" Flight based at Kantara.

Battle of Romani

The Battle of Romani took place near the Egyptian town of Romani 23 miles (37 km) east of the Suez Canal

Suez Canal

. It began shortly after midnight on the night of 3/4 August and ended with the invading force retiring during the late morning and afternoon of 5 August. The Central Powers

Central Powers

The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...

force of Austrians, Germans

German Empire

and Ottomans

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

sought to control or disrupt traffic on the Suez Canal by getting within artillery range and to stop the British Empire

British Empire

reclaiming the Egyptian territory of the Sinai Peninsula

Sinai Peninsula

. It was led by Kress von Kressenstein and numbered 12,000, mainly from the 3rd Infantry Division, with Bedouin irregulars, German machine-gunners and Austrian artillery from Pasha 1. Romani was defended by the 52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division and the 1st

1st Light Horse Brigade

The 1st Light Horse Brigade was a mounted infantry brigade of the First Australian Imperial Force which served in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. The brigade first saw action during the Dardanelles Campaign in the Battle of Gallipoli. After being withdrawn to Egypt in February 1916 they...

and 2nd Light Horse Brigade

2nd Light Horse Brigade

The 2nd Light Horse Brigade was a mounted infantry brigade of the First Australian Imperial Force which served in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. The brigade first saw action during the Dardanelles Campaign in the Battle of Gallipoli. After being withdrawn to Egypt in February 1916 they...

s. The Canal was defended by the 5th Mounted Yeomanry

Yeomanry

, the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade

New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade

The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, consisting usually of four units of mounted infantry, fought in World War I and World War II. Initially a milita, under the instruction of Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Henry Banks they formed the core of the New Zealand Army following successful service in the...

s and the 5th Light Horse Regiment.

Sustained fighting began in the early hours and by about 11:00 on 4 August, the advancing Austrian, German and Ottoman force had pushed the two Australian brigades back to a point where the 52nd Infantry Division in their trenches were able to attack the attackers' right flank, and the New Zealand Mounted Rifle and 5th Mounted Brigades arrived in time to extend the Australian Light Horse's line. The Ottoman advance was stopped by the fire brought to bear on them by these combined British infantry and Australian and New Zealand mounted forces, the deep sand, the mid summer mid day heat and thirst. In mid summer desert conditions, the British infantry were unable to move effectively the next day and the Anzac Mounted Division was unable to stop Kress' large force making an orderly retreat to Katia and eventually back to their base at Bir el Abd. Their base at Bir el Abd was abandoned on 12 August 1916 after fierce fighting, at the extremity of British Empire lines of communication

Lines of Communication

, by the Anzac Mounted Division on 9 August. This was the first substantial Allied victory against the Ottoman Empire in World War I. It ended the Defence of the Suez Canal campaign and this vital waterway was never again threatened by land forces during the remainder of the war. Thereafter the Allies were on the offensive for seven months; pushing the Ottoman Army back across the Sinai to the Battle of Magdhaba

Battle of Magdhaba

The Battle of Magdhaba took place on 23 December 1916 south and east of Bir Lahfan in the Sinai desert, some inland from the Mediterranean coast and the town of El Arish...

and the Battle of Rafa

Battle of Rafa

before being stopped on Ottoman soil at the First Battle of Gaza

First Battle of Gaza

The First Battle of Gaza was fought in and around the town of Gaza on the Mediterranean coast in the southern region of Ottoman Palestine on 26 March 1917, during World War I...

in March 1917.

Arab Revolt

The British were keenly interested in the activities of the Sherif Hussein, Amir of Mecca, whose Sharifian Army

Sharifian Army

The Sharifian Army was the military force behind the Arab Revolt which was a part of the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. Sharif Husayn ibn 'Ali led the Sharifian Army in a rebellion against the Ottoman Empire with the ultimate goal of uniting the Arab people under and independent government...

took over Mecca

Mecca

Mecca is a city in the Hijaz and the capital of Makkah province in Saudi Arabia. The city is located inland from Jeddah in a narrow valley at a height of above sea level...

and Jeddah

Jeddah

Jeddah, Jiddah, Jidda, or Jedda is a city located on the coast of the Red Sea and is the major urban center of western Saudi Arabia. It is the largest city in Makkah Province, the largest sea port on the Red Sea, and the second largest city in Saudi Arabia after the capital city, Riyadh. The...

in the south western Arabian Peninsula

Arabian Peninsula

The Arabian Peninsula is a land mass situated north-east of Africa. Also known as Arabia or the Arabian subcontinent, it is the world's largest peninsula and covers 3,237,500 km2...

from their Ottoman garrisons, on 5 and 16 June 1916. A large Ottoman garrison held out at Taif until towards the end of September when they capitulated, and Sherif Hussein's third son Feisal attacked the Ottoman garrison at Medina

Medina

Medina , or ; also transliterated as Madinah, or madinat al-nabi "the city of the prophet") is a city in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia, and serves as the capital of the Al Madinah Province. It is the second holiest city in Islam, and the burial place of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad, and...

.

On the basis of this success the British hoped to extend the Arab Revolt

Arab Revolt

The Arab Revolt was initiated by the Sherif Hussein bin Ali with the aim of securing independence from the ruling Ottoman Turks and creating a single unified Arab state spanning from Aleppo in Syria to Aden in Yemen.- Background :...

and bring instability along the enemy's Hejaz Railway which runs north – south from Istanbul

Istanbul

Istanbul , historically known as Byzantium and Constantinople , is the largest city of Turkey. Istanbul metropolitan province had 13.26 million people living in it as of December, 2010, which is 18% of Turkey's population and the 3rd largest metropolitan area in Europe after London and...

to Damascus

Damascus

and on to Amman

Amman

, Maan

Maan

Maan or Mann ਮਾਨ or Maanshahia are a clan and tribe of the Jat people found in Punjab , Punjab , Haryana and Rajasthan.- Distribution :...

, Medina

Medina

and to Mecca

Mecca

Mecca is a city in the Hijaz and the capital of Makkah province in Saudi Arabia. The city is located inland from Jeddah in a narrow valley at a height of above sea level...

. Built by the Ottomans with German assistance for the transportation of pilgrims, the railway was an important element in the Ottoman Army's lines of communication, as well as a strategically important support for both defensive and offensive operations; the station buildings being solidly built of stone and capable of being strong defensive positions.

With the balance of power in northern Sinai moving in favour of the British, the Sherif was encouraged to seek support for his revolt from as far north as Baalbek, north of Damascus. In London, the War Office, hoping to foment widespread action throughout the Arab lands of the Ottoman Empire, encouraged General Murray's plan to advance to El Arish.

Sinai campaign

At the conclusion of the Battle of Romani on 12 August 1916 the Ottoman Army had been pushed back to its forward position at Bir el Abd, the last oasis in the series stretching from the Romani area. The enemy's main forward base was pushed back to El Arish, with a fortified advanced post at Bir el Mazar, where a small group of wells provided reliable water.

The Egyptian Expeditionary Force

Egyptian Expeditionary Force

required infrastructure in the form of the railway to haul the huge amounts of ammunition and supplies required to support an advance to El Arish, and the pipeline to provide reliable water in order to move and sustain the large fighting force, supported by service units and administration, across the Sinai Peninsula to El Arish. From the middle of August to the Battle for Magdhaba on 23 December 1916 was a time of waiting for the necessary infrastructure to be put in place. These four months have often been described as a period of rest for the Anzac Mounted Division as there were no major battles. However, the mounted troops were busy providing screens for the construction, patrolling newly occupied areas and carrying out reconnaissances to augment aerial photographs to improve maps of the newly occupied areas.
The whole country to within 20 miles (32.2 km) of El Arish was thoroughly explored and all wells tested and noted. Interesting archaeological remains were also found including Mount Cassius, a sand hill 200 feet (61 m) high, which has a steep cliff–like face on one side showing a line of broken Roman pottery, bricks and stone a few feet thick about 50 feet (15.2 m) from the top, remnants of Cassius' fortified camp of 300 BC.

During one of the patrols, on 19 August, a group of 68 Ottoman soldiers was found half dead from thirst by the 5th Light Horse Regiment (2nd Light Horse Brigade) who, rather than attacking them, gave them water and their rides. The commanding officer and his men led the amazed Ottomans on their horses for 5 miles (8 km) through deep sand until met by transport. 'This was a very queer sight and worthy of a moving picture [of these] poor sacrifices of the Huns'.

British infantry was brought forward to fortify and provide garrisons along the length of the railway. They formed a firm base for mobile operations and defence in depth for the huge administrative organization advancing with the railway, in support of the Anzac Mounted Division and the 52nd Infantry Division. The movement of the infantry across Sinai was eased by construction of wire netting roads also used by Egyptian Labour Corps, light vehicles, cars and ambulances. This reasonably stable surface which did not sink, was constructed from two or four rolls of rabbit wire; one inch mesh wire rolled out side by side, wired together with the edges fixed into the sand with long steel or wooden pegs to produce a reasonable track.

Although the front had moved eastwards across the Sinai, it was still necessary to maintain defence units on the Canal. While serving as part of Canal Defence at Gebel Heliata, Serapeum, the 12th Light Horse Regiment

12th Light Horse Regiment (Australia)

The 12th Light Horse Regiment was a light horse regiment of the Australian Army. It was originally raised in 1915 for service during the First World War, the regiment served in the Middle East against the Turks before being disbanded in 1919...

commemorated 28 August: 'Today being the Anniversary of the Regiment landing on Gallipoli, a little latitude was given to all hands, and an enjoyable evening was spent in the men's canteen.'

German airmen

Luftstreitkräfte

The Deutsche Luftstreitkräfte , known before October 1916 as Die Fliegertruppen des deutschen Kaiserreiches , or simply Die Fliegertruppen, was the air arm of the Imperial German Army during World War I...

bombed Port Said on 1 September 1916 and Australian and British airmen answered with a bombing raid on Bir el Mazar three days later, when twelve bombs silenced the anti–aircraft guns and blew several tents to pieces. Bir el Mazar was again bombed on 7 September. As part of the advance across the Sinai the Australian Flying Squadron's "B" Flight moved their hangars from Suez forward to Mahemdia 4 miles from Romani on 18 September and "C" Flight moved to Kantara on 27 September 1916.

Bir el Mazar Raid, September 1916

A great reconnaissance in force to Bir el Mazar was carried out by the 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Brigades, the 1st Battalion of the Imperial Camel Corps

Imperial Camel Corps

The Imperial Camel Corps was a brigade-sized military formation which fought for the Allies in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign in World War I. Its personnel were infantry mounted on camels for movement across desert....

, the New Zealand Machine Gun Squadron and the Hong Kong and Singapore Battery on 16–17 September 1916.

At the limit of their lines of communication this force was not able to capture the 2000 strong, well entrenched garrison which made a determined stand. After demonstrating the strength of the advancing army, they successfully withdrew back to Anzac Mounted Division's Headquarters at Bir Sulmana 20 miles (32.2 km) to the west. The Ottoman force abandoned Bir el Mazar shortly after.

The report of the 2nd Light Horse Brigade described their 5th Light Horse Regiment

2nd Light Horse Brigade

being fired on by anti–aircraft guns during the operations and reported one man killed and 9 wounded. The 3rd Light Horse Brigade recorded that the troops of the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade and the artillery battery were unable to move quickly enough to take part in the attack, and their brigade lost three killed, three wounded and two injured.
Airmen of No. 1 and No. 14 Squadrons confirmed anti-aircraft guns fired on the light horse, describing the ground engagement as so tough the Ottomans resorted to this extreme measure, turning their anti–aircraft guns away from the attacking planes. The Ottomans withdrew to the Wady El Arish, with garrisons at Lahfan and Magdhaba.

Subjected to further bombing air raids, by 2 October aerial reconnaissance photographs revealed the German aircraft hangars formerly at El Arish had disappeared. By 25 October there was no anti–aircraft fire reported over El Arish and reductions in the enemy force based there were apparent.

By this time the railway construction was well passed Salmana where a British forward airdrome was under construction and No. 1 Squadron were involved in photographing the area around El Arish and Magdhaba, and No. 14 Squadron were reconnoitring Rafa

Rafa

-Places:*Rafah, a town in Gaza Strip*Rafa, Kuyavian-Pomeranian, a village in central northeast Poland- People :* Rafa is short for Rafael* Rafael "Rafa" Nadal , Spanish tennis player...

Maghara Hills Raid, October 1916

As the Allies advanced, an Ottoman-occupied position on the right flank at Bir El Maghara 50 miles (80.5 km) south east of Romani, began to be a threat to their advance. Major–General A.G. Dallas was put in command of a column of 800 Australian Light Horse, 400 City of London Yeomanry, 600 Mounted Camelry and 4,500 camels from the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps, with another 200 camels for the Army Medical Corps

Royal Army Medical Corps

The Royal Army Medical Corps is a specialist corps in the British Army which provides medical services to all British Army personnel and their families in war and in peace...

. The column formed at Bayoud and moved off on 13 October on a two nights march via Zagadan and Rakwa to the Maghara Hills.

On arrival A & C Squadrons of the 12th Light Horse Regiment positioned in the centre, with the 11th Light Horse Regiment on the right and the Yeomanry on the left flanks, dismounted at the foot of the hills. Handing over their lead horses in excellent cover these dismounted men then scaled the heights and surprised the defenders but failed to capture the main defensive position. The 11th Light Horse Regiment captured 7 Turkish prisoners and 3 Bedouins, retiring the way they came to base on 17 October and back to railhead Ferdan on the Suez Canal, on 21 October 1916.

Creation of Eastern Frontier Force

In September, 1916 General Murray moved his headquarters from Ismailia on the Suez Canal back to Cairo in order to more efficiently command the continuing threat from the Senussi in the Western Desert. General Lawrence was transferred to France where he served as Chief of Staff to Field Marshal Haig in 1918.

Field Marshal William Robertson, the British Army's Chief of the Imperial General Staff, set out his global military policy at this time in a letter to Murray of 16 October 1916, in which he stated "I am not intent on winning in any particular quarter of the globe. My sole object is to win the war and we shall not do that in the Hedjaz nor in the Sudan. Our military policy is perfectly clear and simple ... [It] is offensive on the Western Front and therefore defensive everywhere else."

In this climate of defensive military policy, Major–General Sir Charles Dobell, who had acquired a reputation for sound work in minor operations, was promoted to the rank of lieutenant–general, given the title of GOC Eastern Frontier Force and put in charge of all the troops on the canal and in the desert. His headquarters was established at Ismailia and he began to organised his command into two parts, the Canal Defences and Desert Column. Also in October, Eastern Force began operations into the Sinai desert and on to the border of Palestine. Initial efforts were limited to building a railway and a waterline across the Sinai. The railway was constructed by Egyptian Labour Corps

Egyptian Labour Corps

The Egyptian Labour Corps was a group of Egyptian labourers who worked for the British Army in Egypt during the First World War's Sinai and Palestine Campaign.-Historical context:...

at the rate of about 15 miles (24.1 km) a month and the British front moved westward at the same speed. By 19 October the Anzac Mounted Division

Anzac Mounted Division

Headquarters was at Bir el Abd where the 52nd Infantry Division joined them on 24 October.

Aerial bombing and reconnaissance patrols

On 25 October 1916 an aerial patrol over El Arish discovered signs that the Ottomans were withdrawing, which was confirmed 2 days later. By this time the railway was well forward of Salmana where a new aerodrome was under construction.

On 30 October Masaid was photographed. On 4 November the whole El Arish to Magdhaba line was photographed and 2 days later Rafa was under aerial scrutiny. [Cutlack 1941, p.?]

Aerial bombing of Beersheba, November 1916

On 11 November a Martinsyde and nine B E.'s, loaded with bombs and petrol, left the Kantara and Mahemdia aerodromes at dawn and assembled at Mustabig, just west of Bir el Mazar. There a raiding force of five B.E.'s and the Martinsyde formed the largest force yet organised by Australians or any other air squadron in the East, filled up with petrol and bombs and set off in formation towards Beersheba. Over Beersheba the anti–aircraft guns engaged them with high explosive and shrapnel, and the raiders flew through a flurry of white, black, and green bursts. The Martinsyde dropped a 100–lb. bomb fair in the centre of the aerodrome; two 20–lb. bombs hit tents; others made direct hits on the railway to Beersheba

Railway to Beersheba

The Railway to Beersheba is the common name for the railroad which currently stretches from central Israel to the Zin Factories in southern Israel, with spurs to the Be'er Sheva Center Railway Station, Ramat Hovav and the Arad phosphate mines and factories in Tzefa...

and the station. A Fokker and an Aviatik took to the air but were decisively beaten. After photographing Beersheba and the damage caused by the bombs, the airmen returned, reconnoitering Khan Yunis and Rafa on the way. All machines arrived safely, after having spent seven hours in flight. Two days later a German aeroplane retaliated by bombing Cairo.

Advance to Bir el Mazar

On 17 November railhead had reached 8 miles (12.9 km) east of Salmana 54 miles (86.9 km) from Kantara; the water pipeline had reached Romani. The pipeline was complex to build with its associated pumping stations by Army Engineers and the Egyptian Labour Corps

Egyptian Labour Corps

The Egyptian Labour Corps was a group of Egyptian labourers who worked for the British Army in Egypt during the First World War's Sinai and Palestine Campaign.-Historical context:...

.

Bir el Mazar, formerly the forward base of the Ottoman Army was taken over by the Anzac Mounted Division on 25 November 1916 the day before railhead, by 1 December the end of the most recently laid railway line was east of Mazar 64 miles (103 km) from Kantara.

Battle of Magdhaba, December 1916

On 21 December after a night march of 30 miles (48.3 km) part of the Camel Corps Brigade

Imperial Camel Corps

and the Anzac Mounted Division

Anzac Mounted Division

commanded by Major General Chauvel entered El Arish, which had been abandoned by the Ottoman forces, who had retreated to Madghaba where the mounted force won a fierce daylong engagement against strong well constructed defences manned by determined defenders.

Situated on the British right flank, the Egyptian outpost of Magdhaba was some 18 miles (29 km) to the south east into the Sinai desert, from El Arish on the Mediterranean coast was the last obstacle standing in the way of the Allied advance into Palestine.

Major General Chauvel with the agreement of General Chetwode

Philip Chetwode, 1st Baron Chetwode

Field Marshal Philip Walhouse Chetwode, 1st Baron Chetwode, 7th Baronet of Oakley, GCB, OM, GCSI, KCMG, DSO was a British cavalry officer who became Commander in Chief in India.-Early life and education:...

commanding Desert Column who had arrived that day, set out to attack the Turkish forces at Magdhaba with the Anzac Mounted Division

Anzac Mounted Division

. Leaving at about midnight on 22 December, the Anzac Mounted Division was in a position by 0350 on 23 December, to see enemy fires still some miles away at Magdhaba.

With the 1st Light Horse Brigade

1st Light Horse Brigade

in reserve, Major General Chauvel sent the New Zealand Mounted Rifles

New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade

and the 3rd Light Horse Brigade

3rd Light Horse Brigade

The 3rd Light Horse Brigade was a mounted infantry brigade of the First Australian Imperial Force which served in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I....

s to move on Magdhaba by the north and north–east to cut off the possibility of retreat while the Imperial Camel Corps

Imperial Camel Corps

Brigade followed the telegraph line straight on Magdhaba. The 1st Light Horse Brigade reinforced the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade in an attack on the redoubts but fierce shrapnel fire forced them to advance up the wadi bed. By midday all three light horse and mounted rifle brigades and a section of the Camel Brigade, with Vickers and Lewis Gun sections and HAC artillery were engaged in fierce fighting. Aerial reconnaissance to scout out the Ottoman positions greatly assisted the attack, although the six redoubts were well camouflaged.

After tough fighting in the morning of 23 December, at about 13:00 and after hearing that the enemy still had possession of most of the water in the area, its claimed Major General Chauvel decided to call off the attack. About the same time, after a telephone conversation between Major General Chauvel and Lieutenant General Chetwode pressure was continued to be pressed and an attack by all units took place by which time there was no doubt that the Ottoman soldiers were losing the fight. Both the 1st Light Horse

1st Light Horse Brigade

and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade

New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade

s made progress capturing about 100 prisoners and by 15:30 the Ottomans were beginning to surrender. By 16:30 the Ottoman garrison had surrendered, having suffered heavy casualties, and the town was captured. The victory had cost 22 dead and 121 wounded.

Battle of Rafa, January 1917

On the evening of 8 January 1917, mounted units of Desert Column including the Anzac Mounted Division

Anzac Mounted Division

Imperial Camel Corps

Brigade, 5th Mounted Yeomanry Brigade No. 7 Light Car Patrol and artillery, rode out of El Arish to attack the next day 9 January, a 2,000 to 3,000-strong Ottoman Army garrison at El Magruntein also known as the Rafa

Battle of Rafa

or Rafah.

Also on 9 January four British aircraft bombed the German aerodrome at Beersheba

Beersheba

Beersheba is the largest city in the Negev desert of southern Israel. Often referred to as the "Capital of the Negev", it is the seventh-largest city in Israel with a population of 194,300....

during the afternoon and in the evening, on the way back saw a considerable enemy force near Weli Sheikh Nuran.

The British had reclaimed the northern section of the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula from enemy occupation, virtually to the frontier with the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

but the new British government of David Lloyd George

David Lloyd George

David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor OM, PC was a British Liberal politician and statesman...

wanted more. The British Army

British Army

The British Army is the land warfare branch of Her Majesty's Armed Forces in the United Kingdom. It came into being with the unification of the Kingdom of England and Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. The new British Army incorporated Regiments that had already existed in England...

in Egypt was ordered to go on the offensive against the Ottoman Army in part to support the Arab revolt

Arab Revolt

which had started early in 1916, and to build on the momentum created by the victories won at Romani

Battle of Romani

The Battle of Romani was fought east of the Suez Canal, near the Egyptian town of Romani and the site of ancient Pelusium on the Sinai Peninsula during the First World War...

in August and Magdhaba

Battle of Magdhaba

The Battle of Magdhaba took place on 23 December 1916 south and east of Bir Lahfan in the Sinai desert, some inland from the Mediterranean coast and the town of El Arish...

in December 1916.

This next strategic objective was on the border of the British Protectorate of Egypt and the Ottoman Empire some 30 miles (48.3 km) distant, too far for infantry and so the newly formed Desert Column commanded by General Chetwode

Philip Chetwode, 1st Baron Chetwode

was to attack the enemy occupied position along the coast.

The Allied troops captured the town and the fortified position by nightfall with the loss of 71 killed and 415 wounded. The Ottoman garrison suffered heavily, with 200 killed and another 1,600 taken prisoner.

Engagements at Magdhaba and Rafa comparisons

The Sinai campaign has been characterised as a series of withdrawals; from Bir el Abd he 'ordered a general withdrawal,' from Bir el Mazar he 'ordered a withdrawal,' from Magdaba he decided 'to break off the action' and from Rafa Chetwode decided 'to break off and withdraw, Chauvel concurring.' The idea of the campaign being a series of withdrawals from Romani to Rafa, by both sides, dominates the campaign literature. And the Ottoman Army are not so much described as being beaten, captured and having to concede territory, but as withdrawing, also.

At Magdhaba a time constraint was placed on the Anzac Mounted Division, operating at the extreme limit of its lines of communication, to remain on the field because of limited access to water for men and horses and a withdrawal was decided.

At Rafa slow progress, the water situation and the approach of Ottoman reinforcements nearly forced a withdrawal. With ammunition and food at Sheikh Zowaiid and Ottoman relief approaching, at about 16:30 Chetwode prepared orders for a retreat just when the fight was being won. At a similar moment at Magdhaba Chauvel has been accused of deciding to withdraw just when the fight was being won.

At Magdhaba the order to retire was given but before it reached the troops at about 16:30, the position was captured. Chaytor's report in the New Zealand Mounted Brigade's War Diary does not mention an order to retire from Magdhaba. Indeed a phone conversation between Chauvel and Chetwode occurred between 14:15 and 16:30 when continued pressure and an all units attack was ordered for 16:30 when the Ottoman defenders began to surrender.

At Rafa Chetwode discussed the situation on the phone between 16:25 and 16:30 when he decided to withdraw, Chauvel concurring. And as a consequence at 16:30 a 'preliminary order' to withdraw was issued but the main redoubt was captured at 16:45 and the battle won by 17:30. A phone conversation took place at Rafa between Chetwode and Chauvel but the Wellington and Canterbury Mounted Rifle Regiments, New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade make no mention of an order to retire from Rafa.

Other similarities include:

The Ottoman command repeated the same mistake as at Magdhaba when an isolated garrison at Rafa was left to face the attackers.

The attacking forces were of similar size; indeed they were the same force with the addition of the 5th Mounted Brigade and No. 7 Light Car Patrol for the attack on Rafa. Although fought between similar sized forces, two and a half weeks apart, the operations at Magdhaba and Rafa were treated very differently by the Battles Nomenclature Committee. They assigned 'Affair' to the victory at Magdhaba as they considered it had been between forces of less than a division, while the victory at Rafa was considered to be an 'Action;' fought between division sized forces.

The defending Ottoman forces were of a similar size. Magdhaba was defended by 1,600 troops. At Magdhaba Ottoman losses amounted to between 1,242 and 1,282 prisoners including 43 officers, and four mountain guns. And at El Magruntein/Rafa 1,900 men defended the position and 1,500 prisoners of war were captured.

At Magdhaba it was Chauvel's plan. He quickly initiated a strong enveloping action with the aim of capturing the Turkish positions. This attack was well–planned and carried out with great skill and boldness, every man showing a skill and intelligent appreciation of the situation and fearless confidence in himself and his comrades.

At Rafa the mounted attack was a repetition, generally following the same sequence/pattern/course as the action at Magdhaba although more prolonged, and strikingly similar to the mounted attack during the First Battle of Gaza.

At both Magdhaba and Rafa support was provided by aircraft.

At both Magdhaba and Rafa excellent work by the Scouts brought each part of the Anzac Mounted Division to its allotted place on time.

At both Magdhaba and Rafa the defenders were located in well designed and strongly fortified redoubt and entrenchment systems where they controlled the field with heavy fire power dominating the fire fight for most of the day.

The attackers were on the point of retiring when bold action saved the day; both Magdhaba and Rafa had been close-run things.

These two victories highlight the strengths and weaknesses of light horse during the Sinai campaign.

Both engagements were fought without infantry as they took place 18 and 30 mi (29 and 48.3 km) from base and given the difficult desert terrain, too far for the infantry to march. However, they were just the operations the mounted men were trained for, and in an address the day after the battle of Magdhaba and two days after his arrival at the front, Chetwode acknowledged this expertise, when he said "that the mounted men at Magdhaba had done what he had never known cavalry in the history of war to have done before, i.e., they had not only located and surrounded the enemy's position but they had got down to it as infantry and had carried fortified positions at the point of the bayonet."

At Rafa the 5th Mounted Yeomanry Brigade lacked the drills, skill and command drive to match the Anzac Mounted Division's quick responses and movements.

End of Sinai Campaign

The first signs of a major reorganisation of the Ottoman Army's defences were observed after the capture of El Arish and Battle of Magdhaba

Battle of Magdhaba

The Battle of Magdhaba took place on 23 December 1916 south and east of Bir Lahfan in the Sinai desert, some inland from the Mediterranean coast and the town of El Arish...

, on 28 December 1916 when reconnaissance planes found Ottoman forces moving their headquarters from Beersheba. Days before the victory at Rafa

Battle of Rafa

, on 7 January air reconnaissance reported Ottoman forces still at El Auja and El Kossaima with the garrison at El Auja being slightly increased. But between January 14 and 19 Beersheba was bombed several times by No. 1 Squadron Australian Flying Corps in day and night raids; during one of these raids dropping twelve 20–lb. bombs directly on the biggest German hangar. After these raids the German airmen evacuated Beersheba and moved their aerodrome to Ramleh. And on 19 January air reconnaissance reported the enemy had evacuated El Kossaima and were in decreased strength at the major desert base at Hafir El Auja.
One of many retaliatory air raids carried out by German/Ottoman airmen, occurred over El Arish on the same day, the 19 January when the horse lines were targeted. These were an easy and obvious targets which continued to suffer heavily from air raids right through the war.

Also on 19 January the first air reconnaissance of the Ottoman army rear over the towns of Beit Jibrin, Bethlehem, Jerusalem, and Jericho was carried out by Roberts and Ross Smith, escorted by Murray Jones and Ellis in Martinsydes. Junction Station was also reconnoitred on 27 January.

By the end of January both sides were carrying out heavy air attacks; dropping bombs on the stores depot at the main base at El Arish, and No. 1 and No. 14 Squadrons regularly retaliating on Beersheba, Weli Sheikh Nuran, and Ramleh. The Germans were also bombing the Egyptian Labour Corps

Egyptian Labour Corps

The Egyptian Labour Corps was a group of Egyptian labourers who worked for the British Army in Egypt during the First World War's Sinai and Palestine Campaign.-Historical context:...

and delaying the building of the railway now near El Burj half way between El Arish and Rafa with the wire road nearly at Sheikh Zowaiid. As a consequence on 3 February, Major General Chauvel was forced to order Allied bombing to cease in the hope that retaliations would also cease, so that the work on the rail line and pipeline could continue. The Pipeline reached El Arish on 5 February.

In February, 1917 the Ottoman Army was observed also building a light railway line from Tel el Sheria to Shellal, near Weli Sheikh Nuran, Sheria becoming the main Ottoman base midway along the Gaza-Beersheba defensive line.

Raid on Nekhl

The final actions of the Sinai Campaign were ordered by General Murray against Nekhl and El Hassana.

The raid on the garrison at Nekhl set out on 13 February 1917. Nekhl was centrally located in the Sinai desert south of the sand-hills which stretch across from near El Kossaima on the Ottoman frontier, to the vicinity of Suez – Gebel Helal, Gebel Yelleg and Gebel el Heitan extending sixty miles east of the Suez Canal to the large village of Nekhl and about forty miles due north of Nekhl, to the village of Bir el Hassana in a gap between Gebel Helal and the Gebel Yelleg. This central route between the Ottoman frontier and the Suez Canal had been used by the Ottoman Army during its earlier attacks on the canal. By the beginning of 1917 the repetition of such an attack was extremely unlikely, but an Ottoman force at Nekhl, a village of some 50 mud and stone houses, a mosque and a fort, was an important outpost which it was thought the Ottoman Army would attempt to hold so as to reinforce Ottoman authority over the Arabs and Bedouin in an area where sustained warfare by either side was impossible due to the harsh climate and lack of water.

Two mounted columns set out from the Suez Canal on 13 February 1917; one from Serapeum near Ismailia in the centre of the Canal consisting of 11th Light Horse Regiment and the other from Suez at the southern end of the Canal made up of British Yeomanry and Indian Lancers. These forces made the round trip of some 120 miles (193.1 km) in harsh desert conditions supported by three aeroplanes of No. 1 Squadron based at El Arish which worked from the aerodrome of No. 57 Reserve Squadron at Ismailia, during the raid. The planes kept contact with the two columns as they converged from the east and south on Nekhl, dropping messages from headquarters and scouting ahead when necessary. On 17 February when the columns were not far from Nekhl, air reconnaissance found the village abandoned and an extensive air reconnaissance the next day found no sign of the enemy in the area 17 miles (27.4 km) beyond Nekhl.

Major Bassett commanding 2nd Battalion Imperial Camel Corps Brigade marched from Magdhaba on 17 February and surrounded Hassana at dawn the next morning when the Ottoman Army garrison surrendered without resistance.

Summation of Campaign

The Sinai Campaign was a series of successful actions by the Allies, beginning with the conclusion of the Defence of the Suez Canal Campaign and the victory at Romani. All the operations which followed, from Bir el Abd to Rafa were fought at the extreme limits of British lines of communications while the German and Ottoman forces were falling back on their's, and fighting rearguard actions from well chosen defensive positions. Three brigades of light horse and one of mounted rifles, operating far from their base in the inhospitable desert country surprised the Ottoman rearguards, however, time after time. As a result, the Sinai Peninsula was successfully reoccupied for the Egyptian and thus for the British side.

Gaza campaign

Popularly known as the Palestine campaign, the term refers to operations which took place during World War I

World War I

World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...

from just north of the frontier between Egypt

Egypt

Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...

and the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

, commencing early in 1917 and ending with the Armistice

Armistice

An armistice is a situation in a war where the warring parties agree to stop fighting. It is not necessarily the end of a war, but may be just a cessation of hostilities while an attempt is made to negotiate a lasting peace...

in 1918. These operations form a series of campaigns which stretched along the length and across the breadth of the geographic area known as the Levant; they were fought from Gaza

Battle of Gaza

Battle of Gaza may refer to:* Battle of Gaza , fought between Ptolemy I of Egypt and Demetrius I of Macedon* Battle of Raphia, also known as Battle of Gaza, fought between Ptolemy IV of Egypt and Antiochus III the Great of the Seleucid kingdom in 217 BC* Three World War I battles between British...

to Jerusalem, in and around the Jordan Valley and to Es Salt and Amman

Amman

, from just north of Jaffa

Jaffa

to Damascus

Damascus

and on to Aleppo

Aleppo

when the war ended.

With the victory at Rafa, General Murray had successfully accomplished all his and the War Office's objectives; he had secured the Suez Canal and Egypt from any possibility of a serious land attack and his forces controlled the Sinai Peninsula with a series of strongly fortified positions in depth, along a substantial line of communication based around the railway and pipeline, from Kantara on the Suez Canal to Rafa.

However, within two days of the victory at Rafa

Battle of Rafa

on 11 January 1917, General Murray was informed by the War Office that, rather than building on the momentum created over the last two and a half weeks by the victories at Magdhaba and Rafa by encouraging him to further advances with promises of more troops, he was required to send the 42nd Infantry Division on 17 January, to reinforce the Western Front, the decisive theatre where the strategic priority was focused on planning for a spring offensive.

But just a week after the 42nd Infantry Division departed, an Anglo–French conference at Calais on 26 February 1917, decided to encourage pressure to be placed on all fronts in a series of offensives to begin more or less simultaneously with the beginning of the spring offensive on the Western Front. And so the British War Cabinet and the War Office agreed to General Murray's proposal to attack Gaza but without replacing the departed infantry division or offering any other reinforcements and the attack could not take place until 26 March.

While these political machinations were running their course, the Anzac Mounted Division returned to El Arish where troops settled into fairly comfortable bivouacs of tents brought up by train, in camps not far from the Mediterranean Sea, where there was easy access to plentiful fresh water and supplies. During this period of much needed rest and recuperation after the demanding desert campaign of the preceding ten months, sea bathing

Sea bathing

Sea bathing is swimming in the sea or in sea water and a sea bath is a protective enclosure for sea bathing. Unlike bathing in a swimming pool, which is generally done for pleasure or exercise purposes, sea bathing was once thought to have curative or therapeutic value. It arose from the medieval...

, football and boxing together with interest in the advance of the railway and pipeline were the main occupations of the troops from early January to the last weeks of February 1917.
As the British war machine pushed on across the Sinai Peninsula the infrastructure and supporting British garrisons strongly held all the territory they occupied. By the end of February 1917, 388 miles of railway (at a rate of 1 kilometre a day), 203 miles of metalled road, 86 miles of wire and brushwood roads and 300 miles of water pipeline had been constructed. The pipeline required three huge pumping plants working 24 hours a day at Kantara, near a reservoir of 6,000,000 gallons. For local use, the pumps forced the water through 5 inch pipe to Dueidar, through a 6 inch pipe to Pelusium, Romani and Mahemdia and through a 12 inch pipe the main supply was pushed across the desert from pumping station to pumping station. At Romani a concrete reservoir contained a further 6,000,000 gallons, at Bir el Abd 5,000,000 and at Mazar 500,000 and another of 500,000 at El Arish. And with railhead at Rafa, Gaza was by then just twenty miles away, five to six hours for infantry and mounted units at a walk and 2 hours distant for horses at a trot.

Khan Yunis
Khan Yunis
Khan Yunis - often spelt Khan Younis or Khan Yunnis - is a city and adjacent refugee camp in the southern part of the Gaza Strip. According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics the city, its refugee camp, and its immediate surroundings had a total population of 180,000 in 2006...

Raid

The 5th Mounted Yeomanry Brigade had moved on from El Arish along the coast a few miles to El Burj on 28 January, remaining there until 22 February when it joining the Anzac Mounted Division and General Mott's 53rd Infantry Division at Sheik Zowaiid. The next day, 23 February the 5th Mounted Yeomanry Brigade returned to El Burj from Sheikh Zowaiid being replaced by the 22nd Mounted (Yeomanry) Brigade which had recently arrived.

On 23 February the New Zealand Mounted Rifles and 2nd Light Horse Brigades commanded by Brigadier General Chaytor, made a reconnaissance in force to Khan Yunis which was part of a line of strong posts held by the Ottoman Army to protect the southern Ottoman Empire. These posts, consisting of well dug trenches were located in addition to those at Khan Yunis, at a particularly strongly fortified position at Shellal, at Weli Sheikh Nuran and at Beersheba (also referred to as the Hans Yonus–El Hafir line).

Brigadier General Chaytor's troops forced enemy detachments from the area to retreat into the town and then surrounded and captured Khan Yunis. As a consequence of this action and the arrival of British railhead at Sheikh Zowaiid on March 5, the Ottoman Army garrisons realised this line was too weak to be defended against increasing Allied pressure. Enver Pasa, Kress von Kressenstein and Cemal Pasa decided to evacuate Khan Yunis and the system of defences stretching to Shellal on the Wadi Ghuzzeh. The Ottoman Army retiring 14 miles (22.5 km) north to establish a defensive line between Gaza and Beersheba to cover any Allied advance up the coast or inland through Beersheba to Jerusalem. This withdrawal began in February and the Ottoman Fourth Army was in position in its new defensive line by mid-March 1917.

Southern Levant

Khan Yunis was one of several villages in this fertile area, located 6 miles (9.7 km) north of Rafa and the Egyptian–Ottoman frontier on the main road to Gaza. In this village was found the largest and deepest well in the area and after the Engineers had installed a pumping machine, it gave an unlimited supply of water to both men and horses making the village an important forward site for supply depots and bivouacs.
Surrounded by many acres of orchards, each with great hedges of prickly pear, it was here at Khan Yunis that the first of many relics of the Crusaders was found; the remains of an old castle. Another important village with extensive fresh water was found 6 miles (9.7 km) further north on the sand hill strip where it narrowed to a half–mile; the wells of Deir El Belah with the great lagoon, surrounded by groves of date palms became another important base during the war. Each of the villages in this fertile region had its well, and underground water storage cisterns usually sealed by a close fitting stone to prevent evaporation which, when found by the troops were of great value.

In stark contrast to the Egyptian desert country, this fertile Ottoman Empire territory in the southern Levant, was covered by grasslands and cultivated fields. The Wadi Ghuzzeh became the limit of reconnaissance and patrol work which was carried out among open and rolling–downs country, without fences and very few trees, spread with green crops showing well above the ground. And beautiful flowers everywhere; poppies, scarlet ranunculi, great stretches of irises both large and small, blue cornflower, pimpernels, anemones in endless variety and many beautiful gladioli, tulips, narcissi and many more unknown varieties, and even in the narrow strip of sand hills along the coast grew the perfumed desert lily. At Khan Yunis gardens, orchards, fig plantations and grazing were carried on, in the Rafa and Sheikh Zowaiid areas barley and wheat were grown, and at Gaza an important depot for cereals with a German steam mill, barley, wheat, olives, vineyards, orange groves and wood for fuel were grown as well as many goats grazed. Barley was exported to England for brewing into English beer and in 1912 the 40,000 inhabitants of Gaza imported £10,000 of yarn from Manchester. Maize, millet, beans and water melon all harvested in early autumn were cultivated in most of these localities.

Firmer ground meant it was possible for the infantry to play an active part in the planned engagements of this new campaign; it also made it possible to use wheeled vehicles and the pedrails came off the guns and their teams of eight and ten horses were reduced to six. General service and limber wagons drawn by horses or mules began to replace some of the camel–trains although they remained important throughout the war and were used together with pack mules and donkeys where roads were bad; in hilly trackless terrain where the horse and mule drawn wagons, motor lorries and tractors could not go. In difficult country the transport wagons of the regiments, the machine–gun squadrons and the field ambulances travelled together in a separate column on an easier less direct route. All these animals requiring vast quantities of food and water which had to be transported forward and although it was found during the advance across the Sinai, that horses did better with two drinks a day rather than three, they drank more doing nothing for the problems of water supply.

The wagons of the Anzac Mounted Division were pulled by teams of mules, two in the pole and three in the lead, driven by one man from the box during the Sinai campaign when they transported the divisions supplies from the railway on the west side of the Suez Canal to the railway on the east side. These did such excellent service that the five-mule team was laid down for the Egyptian Expeditionary Force and they ultimately almost superseded the British four or six horse ride-and-drive teams.

Eastern Force and Desert Column reorganisation

With the departure of the 42nd Infantry Division for the Western Front, its place at El Arish was taken by 53rd (Welsh) Infantry Division which transferred from garrison duties in Upper Egypt following the defeat of the Senussi. And the 54th (East Anglian) Infantry Division which had been in the Southern Section of the Suez Canal Defences also moved eastwards to El Arish, while the new 74th Infantry Division of 229, 230 and 231 Infantry Brigades was being formed from dismounted Yeomanry brigades in Egypt.
The arrival of 6th and 22nd Mounted Brigades from the Salonika front prompted a reorganisation of Desert Column. Instead of grouping the two new brigades with the 4th Light Horse Brigade (in the process of formation) and the 5th Mounted Brigade to form the new Imperial Mounted division, (established 12 February 1917 at Ferry Post on the Suez Canal under the command of British Army Major General H.W. Hodgson) the Anzac Mounted Division's 3rd Light Horse Brigade was transferred and the newly arrived 22nd Mounted Brigade was attached to the Anzac Mounted Division.

Thus by March 1917 General Charles Dobell

Charles Macpherson Dobell

Lieutenant-General Sir Charles Macpherson Dobell KCB, CMG, DSO was a Canadian soldier who served with the Royal Welch Fusiliers of the British Army.-Education:...

commander of Eastern Force had 52nd and 54th Infantry Divisions and the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade directly in his command and Desert Column commanded by General Chetwode consisting of the 53rd Infantry Division commanded by Major General Dallas, Anzac Mounted Division commanded by Major General Chauvel now made up of 1st and 2nd Light Horse, New Zealand Mounted Rifles and 22nd Mounted Yeomanry Brigades and the Imperial Mounted Division commanded by Major General Hodgson now made up of the 3rd and 4th Light Horse commanded by J. B. Meredith from the 1st Light Horse Brigade, the 5th and 6th Mounted Yeomanry Brigades and two Light Car Patrols. The 3rd Light Horse Brigade rather resented the change, as they lost the connection with their service on Gallipoli via the old name of Anzac.

The Imperial Mounted Division moved up from Ferry Post to join Desert Column at el Burj just past El Arish on the road to Gaza between 28 February and 9 March; the 3rd Light Horse Brigade coming under orders of Imperial Mounted Division on 2 March and the Imperial Mounted Division coming under orders of Desert Column on 10 March 1917. The 4th Light Horse Brigade, in the process of formation at Ferry Post, planned to leave on 18 March.

Transport was also reorganised; the horse drawn supply columns were combined with the camel trains so that Eastern Force could operate for about twenty four hours beyond railhead. This was a vast undertaking; one brigade (and there were six) of Light Horse at war establishment consisted of approximately 2,000 soldiers as well as a division of infantry; all requiring sustenance.

Ottoman Army Units

During February British intelligence reported the arrival in the region, of two divisions of the Ottoman Army; the 3rd Cavalry Division (from the Caucasus) and the 16th Infantry Division (from Thrace). They joined three infantry divisions in the area; along the 30 kilometres (18.6 mi) long Gaza–Beersheba line, the Fourth Army had about eighteen thousand soldiers. Kress von Kressenstein allocated some troops to both Gaza and Beersheba, but held the majority in reserve at Tell esh Sheria and Jemmameh and by mid March the Ottoman Army's 53rd Infantry Division was on its way south from Jaffa to augment these troops. The garrison at Gaza consisting of seven battalions could muster 3,500 rifles, machine gun companies and five batteries of 20 guns, supported by a squadron of newly arrived German Halberstadt

Halberstädter Flugzeugwerke

Halberstädter Flugzeugwerke or Halberstadt was a German aircraft manufacturer. It was formed in April 1912 as a British-German joint venture under the name German Bristol works Flugzeuggesellschaft mbH in Halberstadt. Initially the plant produced Bristol Boxkites and Bristol Prier monoplanes, but...

fighter aircraft, which outclassed Allied aircraft and gave the Ottomans local air mastery.

It was believed the Ottoman Army had 7,000 rifles supported by heavy field and machine guns with reserves close by at Gaza and Tel el Sheria.

Between the victory at Rafa and the end of February 70 deserters entered the British lines and it was believed that this represented a small proportion as the majority of Arabs and Syrians disappeared into the towns and villages of Palestine and the Transjordan.

Ottoman retreat from Shellal

No. 1 Squadron Australian Flying Corps and No. 14 Squadron bombed Beersheba in mid February destroying 3 German planes and on 25 February assisted a French battleship which shelled Jaffa, by directing the ship's fire and the German aerodrome at Ramleh was bombed on the same day. On 5 March six planes bombed the enemy railway at Tel el Sheria and although the damage was not great this main enemy base continued to be bombed by relays of raiders in the moonlight of the night of 7 March and the following morning 6 planes bombed Junction Station an important railway junction and supply depot; it was also bombed on 9, 13 and 19 March.
On 5 March the Ottoman Army retreated from Shellal to the north side of the Wadi Ghuzze to a line from Gaza

Gaza

not far from the Mediterranean Sea

Mediterranean Sea

The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean surrounded by the Mediterranean region and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Anatolia and Europe, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant...

to Beersheba

Beersheba

Beersheba is the largest city in the Negev desert of southern Israel. Often referred to as the "Capital of the Negev", it is the seventh-largest city in Israel with a population of 194,300....

just as the British railway reached Sheikh Zowaiid. At this time General Murray, the Commander-in-Chief EEF, agreed to Lieutenant General Dobell commander of Eastern Force, planning to attack Gaza at the end of March. Despite this delay its claimed Lieutenant General Dobell considered 'an early surprise attack was essential ... otherwise it was widely believed the enemy would withdraw without a fight.' By the middle of March the railway had reached Rafa, 12 miles from Deir el Belah and within range for an attack on Gaza by mounted troops as well as infantry.

On March 20 Lieutenant General Dobell moved his headquarters to Rafa. The next day, complete with an enclosed paddock, totalizator, jumps and a marked course, the Rafa Race Meeting was held when each race was contested by Yeomanry, Australians and New Zealanders. Trophies were ordered from Cairo and a programme printed. On 22 March preliminary moves prior to the attack on Gaza began, and all roads and tracks possible for wheels were carefully reconnoitred as far as Belah and allotted to the different formations. On 24th Lieutenant General Dobell issued orders for the battle.

First Battle of Gaza, March 1917

The Ottoman Army gave up a small area of the southern Ottoman Empire to retire to Gaza

Gaza

on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea

Mediterranean Sea

, holding large garrisons spread across the area to Beersheba; to the north east, east, and south east at Hareira, Tel el Sheria, Jemmameh, Tel el Negile, Huj and Beersheba

Beersheba

Beersheba is the largest city in the Negev desert of southern Israel. Often referred to as the "Capital of the Negev", it is the seventh-largest city in Israel with a population of 194,300....

.

While Desert Column's Anzac and Imperial Mounted Divisions stopped Ottoman reinforcements from pushing through to join the Ottoman garrison at Gaza, on 26 March, the 53rd Infantry Division supported by a brigade of 54th Infantry Division attacked the strong entrenchments to the south of the town. In the afternoon, after being reinforced by the Anzac Mounted Division, the all arms' attack quickly began to succeed. With most objectives captured, night stopped the attack and the withdrawal was ordered before the commanders were fully aware of the gains captured.

The government in London believed reports by General Dobell and General Murray indicating a substantial victory had been won and ordered Murray to move on and capture Jerusalem. The British were in no position to attack Jerusalem as they had yet to break through the Ottoman defenses at Gaza.

Second Battle of Gaza, April 1917

The entrenchments at Gaza were rapidly improved and credit for the Ottoman defence is given to the German chief of staff Baron Kress von Kressenstein.

A second attack on Gaza was launched one month later on 17 April 1917. This attack, supported by naval gunfire, chlorine gas and even a few early tanks, was also a failure. It was essentially a frontal assault on a fortified position, and its failure was due more to inflexibility in operations than to faults in planning; yet it cost some 6,000 British casualties. As a result both General Dobell and General Murray were removed from command.

General Allenby

The new man put in charge was General Sir Edmund Allenby and his orders were clear: take Jerusalem by Christmas. After personally reviewing the Ottoman defensive positions, Allenby requested reinforcements: three more infantry divisions, aircraft, and artillery. This request was granted and by October, 1917, the British were ready for their next attack.

The Ottoman army had three active fronts at this time: Mesopotamia

Mesopotamian Campaign

The Mesopotamian campaign was a campaign in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I fought between the Allies represented by the British Empire, mostly troops from the Indian Empire, and the Central Powers, mostly of the Ottoman Empire.- Background :...

, Arabia, and the Gaza front. They also had substantial forces deployed around İstanbul

Istanbul

and in the (now quiet) Caucasus front. Given all these demands, the army in Gaza was only about 35,000 strong, led by the Ottoman General Mustafa Kemal

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was an Ottoman and Turkish army officer, revolutionary statesman, writer, and the first President of Turkey. He is credited with being the founder of the Republic of Turkey....

and concentrated in three main defensive locations: Gaza, Tel Es Sheria, and Beersheba. Allenby's army was now much larger, with some 88,000 troops in good condition and well-equipped.

Battle of El Buggar Ridge

The occupation of Karm by the Allies on 22 October 1917 created a major point for supply and water for the troops in the immediate area. For the Ottoman forces, the establishment of a railway station at Karm placed the defensive positions known as the Hureira Redoubt and Rushdie System which formed a powerful bulwark against any Allied action under threat.

To forestall this threat, General Erich von Falkenhayn, the Commander of the Yildirim Group, proposed a two phase attack. The plan called for a reconnaissance in force from Beersheba on 27 October, to be followed by an all out attack launched by the 8th Army from Hureira. This second phase was ironically scheduled to occur on the morning of 31 October 1917, the day when the Battle of Beersheba began.

Battle of Beersheba, October 1917

A key feature of the British plan was to convince the Ottomans (and their German leaders) that once again, Gaza was to be attacked. This deception campaign was extremely thorough and convincing. The Battle of El Buggar Ridge

Battle of El Buggar Ridge

The Battle of El Buggar Ridge took place on 27 October 1917, as part of the Sinai and Palestine campaign during World War I. It began as a reconnaissance in force by the Ottoman forces to test the resolve of the Allied defensive perimeter around the newly opened supply station of Karm...

, initiated by the Ottomans, completed the deception. When the Allies launched their attack on Beersheba, the Ottomans were taken by surprise. In one of the most remarkable feats of planning and execution, the Allies were able to move some 40,000 men and a similar number of horses over hostile and inhospitable terrain without being detected by the Ottomans. The climax of the battle was one of the last successful cavalry charges of modern warfare, when two Australian Light Horse regiments (4th and 12th) charged across open ground just before dusk and captured the town.

The Ottoman defeat at Beersheba on 31 October was not a complete rout. The Ottomans retreated into the hills and prepared defensive positions to the north of Beersheba. For the Allies, the following days were spent fighting a difficult and bloody battle at Tel el Khuweilifeh, to the north east of Beersheba.
To break through the Ottoman defensive line, the Allied forces attacked the Ottoman positions at Tel Es Sheria on 6 November, and followed this up with a further attack at Huj the following day. With the imminent collapse of Gaza at the same time, the Ottomans quickly retreated to a new line of defence.

Third Battle of Gaza

On 7 November the Ottoman held Gaza – Hareira/Sheria – Tel el Khuweilfe line taken up after the capture of Beersheba on 31 October 1917, was abandoned. They were concerned about being cut off and retreated in the face of continued British pressure. Gaza was finally captured and the once formidable Ottoman defensive positions were lost.

Advance to Mughar Ridge, November 1917

From 1 to 6/7 November strong Ottoman rearguards at Tel el Khuweilfe in the Judean Hills, at Hareira and Sheria on the plain and at Sausage Ridge and Gaza on the Mediterranean coast held the Egyptian Expeditionary Force in heavy fighting. During this time the Ottoman Armies were able to withdraw in good order. And the rearguard garrisons themselves, were able to retire under cover of darkness during the night of 6/7 or 7/8 November. General Allenby ordered the Egyptian Expeditionary Force to advance and capture the retreating Ottoman VII and VIII Armies but they were delayed by strong rearguards.
An attempt on 12 November by four divisions of the Ottoman 8th Army to counterattack and stop the British advance in front of the vital Junction Station (Wadi Sara) on the Jaffa–Jerusalem railway

Jaffa–Jerusalem railway

The Jaffa–Jerusalem railway is a railroad that connected Jaffa and Jerusalem. The line was built in Ottoman Palestine by the French company Société du Chemin de Fer Ottoman de Jaffa à Jérusalem et Prolongements and inaugurated in 1892, after previous attempts by the Jewish philanthropist Moses...

, was held by the Australian Mounted Division reinforced with two additional brigades.

On 13 November the Egyptian Expeditionary Force attacked a 20,000 strong Ottoman force deployed on a hastily constructed but naturally strong defensive line. The main attack was carried out by the XXIst Corps's 52nd (Lowland) and 75th Infantry Divisions in the centre with the Australian Mounted Division on the right flank and the Anzac and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions on the left. The infantry in the centre prevailed supported by a cavalry charge by 6th Mounted Brigade (Yeomanry Mounted Division). And on 14 November the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade defeated a substantial rearguard; the 3rd Ottoman Infantry Division at Ayun Kara. The combined effects of this series of devastating failures by the Ottoman Army was to see their 8th Army give up Jaffa and retire across the Nahr el Auja while their 7th Army withdrew into the Judean Hills to defend Jerusalem. They had withdrawn approximately 50 miles (80.5 km), losing 10,000 prisoners and 100 guns and suffering heavy casualties.

Capture of Jerusalem, December 1917

Jerusalem operations began with the Battle of Nebi Samwill fought between 17 and 24 November, were continued by the subsidiary Battle of Jaffa between 21 and 22 December and ended with the Defence of Jerusalem from 26 to 30 December 1917. These battles were ultimately successfully fought by the XX Corps, the XXI Corps and Desert Mounted Corps against the Ottoman 7th Army in the Judean Hills and their 8th Army. Battle lines extended from north of Jaffa on the Mediterranean Sea across the Judean Hills to Bireh and east of the Mount of Olives.

The battlefield over which the Battle of Nebi Samwil was fought continued to be subject to attacks and counterattacks until early December when Jerusalem was occupied by the British. Fighting also continued in the vicinity Bireh and the main Ottoman supply line running along the Jerusalem to Nablus road north of the city.
After the Ottoman Army had evacuated Jerusalem, the city was occupied on 9 December 1917. This was a major political event for the British government of David Lloyd George, one of the few real successes the British could point to after a year of bitter disappointments on the western front.

On the Ottoman side, this defeat marked the exit of Djemal Pasha, who returned to Istanbul

Istanbul

. Djemal had delegated the actual command of his army to German officers such as von Kressenstein and von Falkenhayn more than a year earlier, but now, defeated as Enver Pasha had been at the Battle of Sarikamis

Battle of Sarikamis

The Battle of Sarikamish was an engagement between the Russian and Ottoman empires during World War I. It took place from December 22, 1914 to January 17, 1915 as part of the Caucasus Campaign. The outcome was a Russian victory. The Ottomans employed a strategy which demanded that their troops be...

, he gave up even nominal command and returned to the capital. Less than a year remained before he was forced out of the government. General Falkenhayn was also replaced, in March 1918.

Report on condition of animals

During the lull in operations after the end of the Jerusalem campaign, the Director of Veterinary Services, Egyptian Expeditionary Force requested the General Officer Commanding Desert Mounted Corps (Lieutenant General Chauvel) details regarding the condition of animals between 1 November and 31 December 1917 –

1. The longest period they were continuously without water: (a) One cable wagon team from DHQ was without water for a period of 84 hours. (b) Several regiments in the two Australian Brigades were without water for a period of 60 hours. (c) The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade was without water for 72 hours.
2. The work performed during this period: By (a) above, almost continuous work, cable laying, which entailed heavy work partly over rough country. By (b) above, fast travelling and reconnaissance, averaging about 20 miles each day. By (c) above, first two days reconnaissance, averaging about 20 miles per day, remainder of period practically no movement.
3. Whether they fed well when they were thirsty: Yes, up to 36 hours; after that, in most cases, they refused to eat.
4. The average number of times they were watered daily during the period specified or during any intermediate period: During the period of advance, once per day i.e. to 15 November, after that twice daily.
5. The smallest amount of grain and fodder they received at any time and for what period: 4 lbs grain and no bulk fodder for 24 hours
6. The average amount of grain and fodder they received during the whole or any intermediate period: An average of 9 lbs. grain with average 4 lbs Tibbin requisitioned from inhabitants up to 17 December. From 17 to 31 December, 12 lbs. grain and average 4 lbs haystuffs.
7. The maximum amount of grain and fodder they received at any time and for what period: As shown in last period in para. 6.
8. To what extent were units able to supplement their forage locally, by grazing or otherwise: An average of 4 lbs haystuff per horse was obtained from the inhabitants throughout the whole period of operations. Grazing nil.
9. When was there any noticeable change in their condition and vigour as a result of work and privation: Decided falling off in condition and vigour after 36 hours without water. With good food and water horses picked up remarkably, though it is to be observed that all units report that issue of grain on five consecutive days caused serious trouble, the horses suffering from diarrhoea and laminitis and losing vigour. With reference to the cable wagon team which was without water for 84 hours, though much distressed at the end of that period, these horses quickly recovered. It is to be remembered that the horses of the Division commenced operations about 26 October 1917 in excellent condition, which is largely responsible for the fact that evacuations on account of debility have been extremely small, both during operations and afterwards.
Note – The horses of one Brigade had an indifferent watering on morning of 6 November and watering next during action on the 8th November, no more water until during the night of 10/11 November. They were greatly distressed on the 10th, but by the 13th November were, with the good water and rest, fit for work again, though they lost considerably in condition.

Consolidation, 1918

The British government had hopes that the Ottoman Empire could be defeated early in the coming year with successful campaigns in Palestine and Mesopotamia but the Spring Offensive

Spring Offensive

The 1918 Spring Offensive or Kaiserschlacht , also known as the Ludendorff Offensive, was a series of German attacks along the Western Front during World War I, beginning on 21 March 1918, which marked the deepest advances by either side since 1914...

by the Germans on the Western Front delayed the expected attack on Syria for nine full months. General Allenby's army was largely redeployed to France and most of his divisions were rebuilt with units recently recruited in India. His forces spent much of the summer of 1918 training and reorganising.

Because the British achieved complete control of the air with their new fighter planes

Sopwith Camel

The Sopwith Camel was a British First World War single-seat biplane fighter introduced on the Western Front in 1917. Manufactured by Sopwith Aviation Company, it had a short-coupled fuselage, heavy, powerful rotary engine, and concentrated fire from twin synchronized machine guns. Though difficult...

, the Ottomans, and their new German commander, General Liman von Sanders

Otto Liman von Sanders

Generalleutnant Otto Liman von Sanders was a German general who served as adviser and military commander for the Ottoman Empire during World War I.-Biography:...

, had no clear idea where the British were going to attack. Compounding the problems, the Ottomans, at the direction of their War Minister Enver Pasha withdrew their best troops during the summer for the creation of Enver's Army of Islam, leaving behind poor quality, dispirited soldiers. During this time, the Ottomans were distracted by raids against their open desert (eastern) flank by forces of the Arab Revolt commanded by the Emir Feisal

Faisal I of Iraq

Faisal bin Hussein bin Ali al-Hashemi, was for a short time King of the Arab Kingdom of Syria or Greater Syria in 1920, and was King of the Kingdom of Iraq from 23 August 1921 to 1933...

and coordinated by T. E. Lawrence

T. E. Lawrence

Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Edward Lawrence, CB, DSO , known professionally as T. E. Lawrence, was a British Army officer renowned especially for his liaison role during the Arab Revolt against Ottoman Turkish rule of 1916–18...

and other British liaison officers, which tied down thousands of soldiers in garrisons throughout Palestine, Jordan

Jordan

Jordan , officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan , Al-Mamlaka al-Urduniyya al-Hashemiyya) is a kingdom on the East Bank of the River Jordan. The country borders Saudi Arabia to the east and south-east, Iraq to the north-east, Syria to the north and the West Bank and Israel to the west, sharing...

, and Syria.

Westerners versus Easterners

By the end of 1917 all the objectives of the campaign to capture Jerusalem had been achieved; Ottoman-German operations against Baghdad had been frustrated, the last reserves of Ottoman soldiers were engaged and the British nation's morale had been boosted.

The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom

Prime Minister of the United Kingdom

The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the Head of Her Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom. The Prime Minister and Cabinet are collectively accountable for their policies and actions to the Sovereign, to Parliament, to their political party and...

, David Lloyd George

David Lloyd George

David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor OM, PC was a British Liberal politician and statesman...

, wished to knock the Ottoman Empire out of the war in 1918. Already the 7th Indian Division from Mesopotamia was ordered to Palestine and there were many who were worried that if significant forces were diverted from the Western Front to Palestine, England might protect her colonies but lose the war.

The Westerners argued that the real heart of the Ottoman Empire, Istanbul still lay hundreds of miles from an advance to Damascus or even Aleppo and if the Ottoman Empire saw at the same time Germany overrunning France, it would not be enough to force the Ottoman Empire from the war. With Russia out of the war the Dardanelles were no longer an objective for the British Empire as access to the Russian fleet was no longer of any importance.

The Easterners accepted that it was essential to maintain the forces in France and Belgium on the Western Front, but that they were already sufficient to keep the front intact. They argued that 'to surrender the initiative everywhere and to concentrate on a policy of purely passive defence along the whole battle line was a counsel of despair.' Germany would have a brief window of opportunity thanks to the armistice between Russia and Germany, to attack the Allied forces on the Western Front before the United States, which had already entered the war could bring sufficient numbers to end Germany's war. But the Easterners asserted that during two years of war the Allies had superiority in numbers and material greater than the numbers the Germans could bring from the Russian front and they had failed to break the German lines. They argued that the Palestine theatre might be wasteful of shipping but the Western Front was wasteful of lives; that it would be folly to take seasoned troops from Palestine where a decisive victory could be won to die in the stalemate.

On 13 December 1917 the War Cabinet instructed the General Staff to consider two policies; the conquest of Palestine involving an advance of about 100 miles (160.9 km) or an advance to Aleppo to cut the Ottoman communications with Mesopotamia. On 14 December General Allenby reported that the rainy season would prevent any further attacks for at least two months.

Qualified approval from the Supreme War Council for a decisive offensive to annihilate Ottoman armies and crush resistance was contained in Joint Note No. 12. It was claimed that the destruction of the Ottoman Empire 'would have far-reaching results upon the general military situation.' Early in February, 1918 General Jan Christiaan Smuts (a member of the Imperial War Cabinet

Imperial War Cabinet

The Imperial War Cabinet was created by British Prime Minister David Lloyd George in the spring of 1917 as a means of co-ordinating the British Empire's military policy during the First World War...

) was sent to confer with Allenby regarding the implementation of the Joint Note. The French imposed an important qualification on the Joint Note; that no British troops in France could be deployed to the Egyptian Expeditionary Force. Smuts informed Allenby the intention was to reinforce the Egyptian Expeditionary Force with one and possibly a second Indian cavalry division from France, three divisions from Mesopotamia and more artillery and aeroplanes. Smuts also suggested crossing the Jordan, capturing the Hejaz Railway and using it to outflank Damascus.The Hedjaz railway stretched 800 miles (1,287.5 km) from Medina to Damascus with connections to Istanbul and Baghdad. [Woodward 2006, p. 162]

Administration of captured territory

When General Allenby first assumed command of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force he quickly joined the army in the field leaving the political and administrative problems related to the Egyptian Mandate to a Government appointee with a suitable staff. The area of formerly Ottoman territory now under occupation also required management, and with the approval of the Government, Allenby appointed a Chief Administrator for Palestine. He divided the country into four districts: Jerusalem, Jaffa, Majdal and Beersheba, each under a military governor. Under this administration the immediate needs of the people were provided for, seed grain and live–stock were imported and distributed, finance on easy terms was made available through the Army bankers, a stable currency was set up and postal services restored.
On 15 January 1918 Allenby reported to DMI

Directorate of Military Intelligence

The Directorate of Military Intelligence was a department of the British War Office.Over its lifetime the Directorate underwent a number of organisational changes, absorbing and shedding sections over time.- History :...

regarding attitudes to the occupation of Jerusalem. The Moslems were for the most part non–committal, partisans of Sheriff are genuinely pleased but worried by Jewish influence. The attitude of Bedouin from East of Jerusalem to Bir El Saba (Beersheba) varies some are unsatisfactory but the protection of the sacred Moslem places is generally accepted as satisfactory. The Jews are overjoyed by the support contained in the Balfour Declaration for Zionism and Christians are happy with the occupation.

Allenby was under pressure to set up foreign administrations in Palestine. Already the French representative in Palestine, Picot was pressuring for a share in the administration of a French Protectorate in the Holy Land by pushing to assume the rights and dignities in church which the French representative enjoyed before the war. His presence and behaviour was resented by the Italians and the church representatives became angry. Allenby was aware that in Jerusalem angry priests came to blows in the Holy Places from time to time. He insisted that while military administration was required it must be under the British Commander in Chief alone.

State of the Ottoman Army

The Ottoman Army had been weakened by considerable losses suffered between 31 October and 31 December 1917. The 7th Ottoman Army lost 110 officer and 1,886 men killed, 213 officer and 5,488 men wounded, 79 officers and 393 men captured and 183 officers and 4,233 men were missing. This army had also lost 7,305 rifles 22 light and 73 heavy machine guns and 29 guns. The 8th Army reported 2,384 wounded but no rifles, machine guns or artillery guns missing. Total Ottoman casualties for the period were 25,337 killed, wounded, captured or missing while British losses for the same period amounted to 18,000 men. During the same period the British reported 70 officers and 1,474 men killed, 118 officers and 3,163 men wounded, 95 officers and 5,868 men captured and 97 officers and 4,877 men missing. This was in spite of odds in favour of the British of well over two to one in infantry and eight to one in cavalry as well as a massive artillery, logistical and naval superiority. It is therefore remarkable that any Ottoman units survived the onslaught and made the Ottoman fighting withdrawal under pressure a great accomplishment.

The Ottoman Army was still a competent fighting force at the beginning of 1918. Every infantry division which had fought at Beersheba on 31 October was intact and still fighting, although some were considerably reduced in strength. To make up for these losses reinforcements had arrived in December 1917. The 2nd Caucasian Cavalry Division and the 1st Infantry Division had been transferred to Palestine from the Caucasus. Indeed at the end of the Jerusalem campaign the Ottoman soldiers appeared the toughest, most obdurate and most professional of fighters. The Ottoman Army was still aggressive and confident while Enver Pasa and the Ottoman General Staff remained focused on the offensive. Their front line was held by the 8th Army with headquarters at Tul Keram defending the Mediterranean coastal sector, the 7th Army with headquarters at Nablus defending the Judean Hills sector while the 4th Army with headquarters at Amman (until after the first Transjordan attack on Amman

First Transjordan attack on Amman (1918)

The First Transjordan attack on Amman was part of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War I. Between 21 and 30 March 1918, three separate engagements occurred which together form the First Transjordan attack...

when its headquarters was moved forward to Es Salt) defending the Transjordan sector. But German air superiority ended with the arrival of Bristol fighters, one of which on 12 December destroyed three German Albatros scouts, and the S.E.5.a. From January 1918 these British planes increasingly dominated the skies.

The Ottoman high command was dissatisfied with General von Falkenhayn the commander of the Ottoman Army in Palestine. He was seen to have been responsible for the defeat at Beersheba and his refusal to allow Ottoman staff officers to participate in planning combat operations rankled. Enver Pasa replaced him on 19 February with Marshall Otto Liman von Sanders

Otto Liman von Sanders

Generalleutnant Otto Liman von Sanders was a German general who served as adviser and military commander for the Ottoman Empire during World War I.-Biography:...

and under this new leader changed the established 'active, flexible defence' style to a more unyielding defence.

Condition of British infantry – Judean Hills

British soldiers serving in Palestine believed they would be better off if they were serving in France mainly because they would be nearer home and be able to get leave and letters more often. They also thought that in France they would enjoy comfortable billets whenever they were out of the front line and be close to the central theatre of the war.

Despite the EEF's improved infrastructure weather and conditions at this time of year played havoc with transport and a soldier's diet was often reduced to the bare minimum of canned meat and biscuit. As railway connections with Kantara improved, so did the diet of the soldiers. Tea was brought in from Ceylon; sheep and goats from the Sudan, Cyprus, and later Syria; flour from Australia, India, and Canada; and frozen meat from Australia, South Africa, and Argentina. These supplies were transported from Kantara by railway to a railhead and then allotted to specific units. It would then be despatched by lorries, wagons or by camel if there were no sealed roads. It has been considered that British soldiers were much better fed "than the half–starved Turk he faced on his front."

But the Ottoman armies had been falling back from Gaza and Beersheba on their own intact supply lines; they were not the ones with problems of supply. Ottoman deserters were always anxious to give information which they thought would please; when asked how they were doing in the way of food, the reply was often that they were starving not because they were starving, but because the deserter thought it was would please the British to hear that they were. The crucial importance of the lines of communication to the feeding of the men resulted in road making in the Judean Hills being carried on by the infantry as well as the local population; whole battalions worked everyday making mud into roads by laying stones over the mud.Near Bethany hundreds of women and children were at work carting small stones in baskets to the badly-worn roadway, and they were singing happily. The twin nightmares of Turkish rule and starvation had passed; they were being fed by the British Army.[recalled by George Berrie, Ambulance Driver, 2nd Light Horse Field Ambulance in Berrie 1949, pp. 185–6]

Sommers, a lieutenant in the Gordon Highlanders describes going out on a night patrol on 31 March with a sergeant and one man, moving along "wadis at the bottom of very high hills, miles from anybody except Johnny, with a heart thumping hard in my boots. Every bush or boulder took on the appearance of a waiting man. The patrol was a reconnoitring one entirely, and so we were supposed to avoid any enemy, but frequently we send out fighting patrols, of a dozen or more men, and they tackle any enemy they run across, up to twice their number." And spending a night pushing out the line with only slight opposition by building a line of sangars three hundred yards in front of our old line before artillery shelling sent him to hospital. "Johnny began to shell our bivvies and watch[ed] our worldly goods being blown to bits. We heard another shell coming and ducked behind an olive-tree – the brute burst within a few yards and was just congratulating myself on a lucky escape, when I saw blood trickling down my tunic, and found that they had got me in the cheek. Directly I was hit one of the company stretcher bearers dressed me, and from there I went to the regimental aid-post, where the M.O. had an ineffectual probe or two. I walked up an awful wadi for about 2 miles (3.2 km) to the advanced aid-post which was full. They gave me a mule and an orderly, and sent me on to the Field Ambulance, which was at Bethel, a horrible journey in the dark over slithery hills – 8 miles (12.9 km) of them. A large tot of brandy settled me off, and I slept until they were ready to send me on to Jerusalem, which I reached after various adventures. One night in the Italian Hospital there, and now I am at railhead waiting to go down the line to-morrow."

Aerial superiority

Since the arrival of Pasha I just before the Battle of Romani

Battle of Romani

The Battle of Romani was fought east of the Suez Canal, near the Egyptian town of Romani and the site of ancient Pelusium on the Sinai Peninsula during the First World War...

in early August 1916, Ottoman forces had enjoyed aerial superiority. By the end of January, 1918, however, No. 1 Australian Squadron was equipped with nine Bristol Fighters, two R.E.8’s. five Martinsydes, and five B.E's and by the end of March all older aircraft had been replaced and the squadron comprised eighteen Bristol Fighters. The Mark I Bristol Fighters (190-h p. Rolls–Royce engines) were gradually replaced during 1918 by Mark 111 type (260-h.p. Rolls–Royce).
These faster aircraft enabled air raids to be carried out well behind Ottoman lines. On 3 January 1918 an R.E.8, accompanied by a combined raid of 16 aircraft (eight from No. 1 Squadron AFC) on El Afule aerodrome in the Esdraelon plain to the north of the Judean Hills. There they dropped 1,200 lbs of bombs on hangars, a two seater aircraft and an ammunition dump which exploded, killing 40 Ottoman soldiers. The raiding aircraft were escorted by at least one Bristol Fighter which attacked two Albatros one of which was shot down near the railway between El Afule and Jenin, the other was also attacked by the R.E.8. During another raid the next day against Jenin aerodrome Albatros scouts made a surprise attack resulting in losses to both sides On 2 February a large camp of 400 tents were reported at Miske immediately behind the Ottoman lines near the Mediterranean coast. The next day 60 bombs were dropped by five aircraft from No. 1 Squadron making 32 direct hits; this raid was repeated the next morning.

With the improved aircraft regular reconnaissance was possible far in the rear of Ottoman lines. The whole disposition of their armies from the front lines back to Jenin and the Esdraelon plain, along the valley of the Jordan across to Es Salt and Amman and over the desert along the railway to El Kutrani, had to be recorded and watched from day to day. The strength at each important point was estimated and the tactical condition of the country ascertained. These air reports showed that existing army maps were so inaccurate that they would have to be redrawn. The positions of important roads and villages near the front line were wrongly given and points of military significance located by aircraft observers were not shown on the maps at all. It was resolved that most of the front line region must be re–mapped. This entailed the photographing of a strip of country 32 miles (51.5 km) deep comprising an area of about 624 square miles. The task was allotted to No. 1 Australian Squadron and took two weeks from 15 January while daylight bombing raids continued to be made on selected points. The method of reconnaissance photography was for five aircraft; Martinsydes and B.E.12.a's, to fly in line 1,000 yards apart at a height of 12,000 feet, thus ensuring an overlap of the exposures of each camera. Day after day this patrol worked under the escort of three Bristol Fighters – two of them from No. 1 Squadron. This work was opposed by Albatros scouts, increasing anti-aircraft fire and the weather.

General aerial reconnaissance patrols over country well beyond the area being photographed was carried out by aircraft as far as 60 miles (96.6 km) behind Ottoman lines. All new aerodromes, important railway centres, new railway and road works, dumps, parks of transport and troop camps were reported and several suspected Ottoman headquarters located. Early on, the importance of the Nablus to Tul Keram road and the Jisr ed Damieh ford across the Jordan River linking Nablus via the Wady Fara to Es Salt and Amman, was appreciated.

In response large groups of anti aircraft guns were assembled by the Ottoman forces at Amman, Jericho, Huwara (south of Nablus), Messudie Juncation (in the hills at Sebustie) and were particularly fierce at Tul Keram (a big supply centre and Ottoman army headquarters) and Kalkilieh (on the railway south of Tul Keram).

Mounted divisions move back to rest camps

Allenby's forces were paralysed by a breakdown in logistics and he had to send two mounted divisions and the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade south of Gaza. He wrote: "I can't feed them, with certainty, and even now, a fortnight's heavy rain would bring me near starvation."
On 1 January the Australian Mounted Division started the journey back to Deir el Belah with 5th Mounted Brigade began moving back through the rain and slush followed by the 4th Light Horse Field Ambulance. Led horses arrived on 5 January and the division moved on in continuous rain back to Ramle at noon and Deiran in the afternoon of 6 January. The trip the next day took them through a wadi with 5 feet (1.5 m) of water; all the floors of carts were awash and the mud had to be cut from the wheels. They moved on again the next day to Mejdel on 9 January eventually reaching Gaza on 11 January; 70 miles (112.7 km) in 11 days.

On 12 January the Anzac Mounted Division moved back; the 1st and possibly 2nd Light Horse Brigades to Esdud (where Frank Hurley took 'mud pictures' on 7 January) with its New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade in its old bivouac near Ayun Kara (Rishon le Zion).

Conscription

While conscription in New Zealand kept the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade up to strength numbers of volunteers from Australia for the Anzac and Australian Mounted Divisions did not. The shortfall of reinforcements after the Somme on the Western Front threatened the breakup of the 3rd Australian Division forcing the Australian Prime Minister William (Billy) Hughes

Billy Hughes

William Morris "Billy" Hughes, CH, KC, MHR , Australian politician, was the seventh Prime Minister of Australia from 1915 to 1923....

to go to the people in October 1916 and again in December 1917. At both failed referenda, the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) favoured conscription but the people did not. By 1918, Australian formations were desperate for reinforcements.

Consolidation of territorial gains

The weather was beginning to improve and railways and roads were being repaired and developed. A lateral line of communication north of the Jaffa to Jerusalem road required the complete reconstruction of the track from Amwas through Beit Sira by the Egyptian Labour Corps. The standard gauge line reached Ludd and was within 0.25 miles (402.3 m) of Allenby's headquarters 2 miles (3.2 km) west of Ramleh. He wrote on 25 January: "I want to extend my right, to include Jericho and the N. of the Dead Sea." On 3 January two Australian aircraft discovered boats carrying corn and hay produced on the plains to the east and southeast of the Dead Sea for the forces at Amman. The boats moving from Ghor el Hadit (behind Point Costigan) and Rujm el Bahr at the northern end of the Sea were bombed and sprayed with bullets by the Australian aircraft which returned again and again until the boat service stopped.
Allenby's next strategic moves were to extend his right to include Jericho, then to cross the Jordan River and advance to Amman and destroy 10–15 mi (16.1–24.1 km) of the Hedjaz railway to isolate Ottoman forces near Medina and encourage further Arab uprisings.Allenby wrote to Robertson on 25 January 1918: "If I could destroy 10 or 15 miles of rail and some bridges and get touch with the Arabs under Feisal – even temporarily – the effect would be great." [Allenby letter to Robertson 25 January 1918 in Hughes 2004, p. 127] Fifteen miles of railway including all bridges were destroyed on 23 May 1917 on the railway from Beersheba to Auja. [Wavell 1968, p. 90 & Powles 1922, pp. 110, 113] For a description of the procedure used to destroy the rails see Powles 1922, p. 112.

The whole British advanced base of operations had moved north from Deir el Belah to the new railhead and at Ramleh the Director of Medical Services' headquarters were also the headquarters of the Motor Ambulance Convoy. Thirteen casualty clearing stations and stationary hospitals had been established along the lines of communication from Jaffa and Jerusalem to Kantara and by March 1918 ambulance trains ran to Kantara from Ludd.

Capture of Jericho, February 1918

Allenby wished to extend his right to include Jericho and the northern part of the Dead Sea. In mid February the 53rd and 60th (London) Infantry Divisions with the 1st Light Horse and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades attacked German and Ottoman defences to the east of Jerusalem held by their XXth Corps' 53rd Infantry Division. As the infantry attack on Talat ed Dumm and Jebel Ekteif progressed the mounted brigades moved towards the Jordan Valley from Bethlehem; the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade successfully attacking enemy positions at el Muntar and a strong position protecting Neby Musa while the 1st Light Horse reached the Jordan Valley and entered Jericho.

EEF advance front line between 8–12 March

Also known as the Battle of Turmus 'Aya, this action pushed the Egyptian Expeditionary Force' front line all the way from the Mediterranean Sea to Abu Tellul and Mussalabeh on the edge of the Jordan Valley northwards. Allenby's right flank was secure but was not sufficiently broad to support the planned operations across the Jordan to the Hedjaz railway; further territory was required to give more depth. During this operation a general advance on a front of 14–26 mi (22.5–41.8 km) and up to a maximum of 5–7 mi (8–11.3 km) in depth by both the XX and XXI Corps pushed the 7th and 8th Ottoman Armies north from the River Auja on the Mediterranean coast, from Abu Tellul and Mussallabeh on the edge of the Jordan Valley and up the Jerusalem to Nablus road capturing Ras el Ain.

First Transjordan attack, March 1918

Before Jericho

Jericho

had been captured General Allenby

Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby

Field Marshal Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby GCB, GCMG, GCVO was a British soldier and administrator most famous for his role during the First World War, in which he led the Egyptian Expeditionary Force in the conquest of Palestine and Syria in 1917 and 1918.Allenby, nicknamed...

was already planning to push across the Jordan River and 'throw a big raid past Salt against the Hedjaz Railway.' The First Attack on Amman

Amman

, as it is known to the British, is known to the Central Powers

Central Powers

The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...

as the First Battle of the Jordan, occurred between 21 and 30 March.
Shea's Force consisting of the 60th (London) Infantry

60th (2/2nd London) Division

The British 60th Division was the second of two second-line Territorial Force divisions formed from the surplus of London recruits in 1914. Originally the division merely supplied the first-line Territorial divisions with drafts to replace losses through casualties...

and the Anzac Mounted Division

Anzac Mounted Division

s successfully forced a crossing of the Jordan River, occupied Es Salt

Salt, Jordan

Salt is an ancient agricultural town and administrative centre in west-central Jordan. It is on the old main highway leading from Amman to Jerusalem. Situated in the Balqa highland, about 790–1100 metres above sea level, the town is built in the crook of three hills, close to the Jordan River...

, attacked Amman and partly destroyed sections of the Hedjaz Railway some 30–40 mi (48.3–64.4 km) east of Jericho.

The Ottoman 48th Infantry Division together with the 3rd and 46th Assault Companies and the German 703rd Infantry Battalion successfully defended Amman and stopped the advance of Shea's Force. With his lines of communication threatened by 2,000 reinforcements moving towards Es Salt from the north the successful retirement was eventually ordered, even though the principal objective; the destruction of a large viaduct at Amman had not succeeded.

The retirement was complete by the evening of 2 April leaving the only territorial gains two bridgeheads at Ghoraniye and Makhadet Hajla. This was the first defeat of units of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force since the Second Battle of Gaza

Second Battle of Gaza

The Second Battle of Gaza, fought in southern Palestine during the First World War, was another attempt mounted by British Empire forces to break Ottoman defences along the Gaza-Beersheba line...

in April 1917. Along with the Second Transjordan attack on Es Salt the following month, these two attacks focused attention away from the Mediterranean coastal sector of the line where the British Empire attack in September 1918 would be comprehensively successful.

Spring Offensive on the Western Front

This was launched by Ludendorff on the Western Front

Western Front

Western Front was a term used during the First and Second World Wars to describe the contested armed frontier between lands controlled by Germany to the east and the Allies to the west...

the same day the First Transjordan attack on Amman began and completely eclipsed its failure. The powerful assault launched on both sides of the Somme by 750,000 collapsed the British front in Picardy held by just 300,000 men; they were forced back on Amiens. On one day; the 23 March German forces advanced 12 miles (19.3 km) and captured 600 guns; in total 1,000 guns and 160,000 suffered the worst defeat of the war. The British War Cabinet recognised at once that the overthrow of the Ottoman Empire must be at least postponed.

The affect of this offensive on the Palestine Campaign was described by Allenby on April 1, 1918: "Here, I have raided the Hedjaz railway 40 miles East of Jordan & have done much damage but my little show dwindles now into a very insufficient [insignificant] affair in comparison with events in Europe." Overnight Palestine went from being the British government's first priority to a "side show."

Reorganisation of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force

The War Office in London sent the following cipher to Allenby:

In continuation of my No. 54881 of 23 March, the situation in France necessitates the cancelling of instructions contained in my No. 53711 of 7 March.
You will adopt a policy of active defence in Palestine as soon as the operations you are now undertaking are complete.
The LIInd Division (less artillery) will be sent to France as soon as shipping can be made available with the artillery of the VIIth Indian Division. It is desired be sent to France one other British division, either on arrival of IIIrd Indian Division, or before, if you consider the situation in Palestine admits of this. Which division would you send?
In view of change of policy, what heavy artillery can you spare? Personnel is urgently needed in France, and if you cannot spare complete batteries, could be made good later [sic].
Despatch of all additional transport and railway material and labour for advance to Haifa has been cancelled, but your normal upkeep will be met.
The despatch of four additional flying squadrons will be delayed.
Replacement of British by Indian units, as already notified, will be carried out.

As ordered Allenby, sent the experienced 52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division which had served with great distinction during the Sinai Campaign at the Battle of Romani

Battle of Romani

The Battle of Romani was fought east of the Suez Canal, near the Egyptian town of Romani and the site of ancient Pelusium on the Sinai Peninsula during the First World War...

in August 1916, garrisoning El Arish during the attacks at Magdhaba

Battle of Magdhaba

The Battle of Magdhaba took place on 23 December 1916 south and east of Bir Lahfan in the Sinai desert, some inland from the Mediterranean coast and the town of El Arish...

and Rafa

Battle of Rafa

and during the Palestine Campaign at the 2nd

Second Battle of Gaza

The Second Battle of Gaza, fought in southern Palestine during the First World War, was another attempt mounted by British Empire forces to break Ottoman defences along the Gaza-Beersheba line...

and 3rd Battles of Gaza

Third Battle of Gaza

The Third Battle of Gaza was fought in 1917 in southern Palestine during the First World War. The British Empire forces under the command of General Edmund Allenby successfully broke the Ottoman defensive Gaza-Beersheba line...

, the Battle of Mughar Ridge

Battle of Mughar Ridge

The Battle of El Mughar Ridge , took place on 13 November 1917 during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of the First World War...

and the Battle of Jerusalem (1917)

Battle of Jerusalem (1917)

The Battle of Jerusalem developed from 17 November with fighting continuing until 30 December 1917 during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War I...

. Also sent to the Western Front during the first half of April were the 74th Infantry Division and 9–10 British infantry battalions from other divisions, five and a half heavy siege batteries and five machine gun companies. Nine Yeomanry regiments of the Yeomanry Mounted Division, which had been led by regular cavalry officers, were sent to France to do infantry work. Another 14 British battalions were sent in May. In all, a total of 60,000 men were sent to the Western Front.
The Yeomanry regiments were replaced by the 3rd and 7th Indian Divisions from Mesopotamia and Indian cavalry units from the France. Between May and August the 53rd, 60th and 75th Divisions were completely reconstituted on the Indian scale; all but one battalion from each brigade sent to France, was replaced by Indian Army battalions.The 60th (London) Infantry Division served with great distinction at the Third Battle of Gaza

Third Battle of Gaza

, Battle of Jerusalem (1917)

Battle of Jerusalem (1917)

The Battle of Jerusalem developed from 17 November with fighting continuing until 30 December 1917 during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War I...

, Capture of Jericho and First Transjordan attack on Amman (1918)

First Transjordan attack on Amman (1918)

. The 10th Division was also reformed with eight of its 12 battalions replaced by Indian battalions; only the 54th Division was left wholly British.

Within the 44 Indian battalions there was a language problem; junior British officers could not speak Hindustani and in one battalion only one Indian officer spoke English and only two British officers could speak Hindustani.

Allenby requested Japanese soldiers to reinforce the Egyptian Expeditionary Force and reacted in mid-June to the War Office's plan to recall the Australian Mounted Division and the only all-British 54th Infantry Division for infantry duties on the Western Front. Both these divisions remained in Allenby's force.
Nevertheless the strength of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force was maintained; seven full infantry divisions remained in Palestine and mounted formations were increased to four mounted divisions including the 4th and the experienced 5th Cavalry Divisions from France. These cavalry divisions were composed of three brigades containing one British and two Indian regiments. British field ambulances remained and were augmented by Indian personnel. When the Australian Mounted Division's 5th Mounted Brigade was sent to France it was replaced by the newly formed 5th Light Horse Brigade made up of Australian and New Zealanders from the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade while the Yeomanry cameleers remained for patrolling with Lawrence's Hejaz forces beyond the Dead Sea. The men of the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade had a rough reputation, largely because battalion commanders took the opportunity when the brigade was formed to offload some of their more difficult characters. After leaving the Jordan Valley they spent "a pleasant four months" training at Surrafend.The Anzac Mounted Division returned to Surrafend after the war where the locals reacted very badly to having them camped nearby. The Australians and New Zealanders formed the 14th and 15th Light Horse Regiments while a French regiment of Spahis and Chasseurs d'Afrique formed the third regiment of the 5th Light Horse Brigade established in August and commanded by Brigadier General George Macarthur-Onslow.

With the exception of the Anzac Mounted Division, Chauvel's Desert Mounted Corps was either reorganising or training; the 4th Cavalry Division commanded by Major General G. de S. Barrow (former commander of the Yeomanry Mounted Division) was soon ready to patrol the front line, while the new 5th Cavalry Division commanded by Major General H.J. Macandrew of the Indian Army, formed from the former 5th and 7th Yeomanry Brigades and the Indian Imperial Service Brigade. The Australian Mounted Division lost the 5th Mounted Brigade which was to be replaced by the a newly formed 5th Light Horse Brigade.

The 36th Jacob's Horse

36th Jacob's Horse

- Origins :Raised by Lieut. John Jacob of the Bombay Artillery, they served first in Southern Afghanistan and later under Sir Charles Napier in the taking of Scinde....

(also known as the Scinde Horse) was a regular Indian Cavalry regiment which had been serving in France. Along with the 1/1st County of London Yeomanry (ex 8th Mounted Brigade) and the 29th Lancers, formed part of the 11th Cavalry Brigade commanded by Brigadier General C. L. Gregory) and along with the 10th and 12th Cavalry Brigades formed Barrow's 4th Cavalry Division commanded by They moved to the Jordan Valley where they engaged in patrol work on the front line.The 36th Jacob's Horse Regiment carried sabres, not lances. [Maunsell pp. 208–9]

EEF attack in the Judean Hills, 9–11 April

General Allenby intended to follow the cutting of the Hedjaz Railway at Amman with an advance to Tulkarm

Tulkarm

Tulkarem or Tulkarm is a Palestinian city in the northern Samarian mountain range in the Tulkarm Governorate in the extreme northwestern West Bank adjacent to the Netanya and Haifa districts to the west, the Nablus and Jenin Districts to the east...

and Nablus

Nablus

Nablus is a Palestinian city in the northern West Bank, approximately north of Jerusalem, with a population of 126,132. Located in a strategic position between Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim, it is the capital of the Nablus Governorate and a Palestinian commercial and cultural center.Founded by the...

and despite the failure of the Amman attack proceeded with plans to capture Tulkarm. Known by the Ottomans as the action of Berukin, the attack between 9 and 11 April, was planned to begin with the 75th Infantry Division capturing the villages of Berukin, Sheikh Subi and Ra-fat together with the high ground at Arara. The 7th Indian Infantry Division would then advance 2000 yards (1,828.8 m) on a 5 miles (8 km) front and prepare gun positions from which to shell Jalijulye

Jaljulia

Jaljulia , officially also spelled Jaljulye, is an Arab town in Israel near Kfar Sava. In 2011, it had a population of 9,000.- History :...

and Tabsor

Tabsur

Tabsur , also Khirbat 'Azzun , was a Palestinian village located 19 kilometres southwest of Tulkarem. In 1931, the village had 231 houses and an elementary school for boys. It was depopulated before the outbreak of 1948 Arab-Israeli war.-History:...

. The 54th and 75th Infantry Divisions would then advance to the Wadi Qarna with their left flank towards Qalqilye

Qalqilyah

-Bibliography: p. -External links:**...

and Jaljulye with the 54th (East Anglian) Infantry Division sweeping westward along the Ottoman defences as far as Tabsor. As soon as Jaljulye and Qalqilye were cleared the Australian Mounted Division

Australian Mounted Division

The Australian Mounted Division was a mounted infantry division formed in Egypt during World War I. When the British forces in the Middle East expanded in late 1916, a second mounted division was created called the Imperial Mounted Division...

would ride hard for Et Tire and pursue vigorously the enemy as far as Tulkarm.

The 75th Infantry Division's preliminary attack, launched at 05:10 on 9 April ran into fierce Ottoman resistance supported by three German field batteries and German battalions were active in counterattacks using mortars

Mortar (weapon)

A mortar is an indirect fire weapon that fires explosive projectiles known as bombs at low velocities, short ranges, and high-arcing ballistic trajectories. It is typically muzzle-loading and has a barrel length less than 15 times its caliber....

and machine guns. At the end of two day's bitter hand-to-hand fighting the 75th Infantry Division was still to gain its objectives and was having difficulty holding on to the little it had gained because of fatigue and depleted numbers. Three days' fighting from 9 to 11 April proved once again that in the Judean Hills machine guns could make any advance slow and expensive.Wavell claims the whole plan of attack was captured from the body of an officer on the first day.[Wavell 1968 pp. 183–4]

This action of Berukin was similar to but on a much smaller scale than the final offensive

Battle of Megiddo

Battle of Megiddo refers to one of the major battles fought near the ancient site of Megiddo in the Jezreel Valley of northern Israel. Of these, the first is by far the most common allusion:...

five months later; in this case the losses were heavy and the gains small; 1,500 British casualties and only about 200 Ottoman dead on the battlefield with 27 Ottoman and German prisoners captured.

Allenby decided that the losses to be suffered if the plan was to be persisted with would not warrant the continuation of the attacks and fighting ceased. However, for the next seven days a long-range artillery duel between British and Ottoman/German guns continued.

Ottoman attacks on 11 April

The 60th (London) Infantry Division moved back into the Judean Hills after the Amman operations while the Anzac Mounted Division and the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade remained to garrison the Jordan Valley under the command of Major General Chaytor, the commander of the Anzac Mounted Division. When Chaytor took over command on 3 April Major he divided his force in two; one group to defend the Ghoraniyeh bridgehead from the east and the other to defend the Wadi el Auja bridgehead from the north. The group defending Ghoraniyeh comprised the 1st Light Horse Brigade, one regiment of the 2nd Light Horse Brigade and three field batteries; the group defending the Auja position including Mussallabeh hill comprised the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade, the 2nd Light Horse Brigade (less one regiment and a field artillery brigade, while the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade was in reserve near Jericho. Some defensive work was carried out including wire.

Shortly after the withdrawal from Amman a force of seven Ottoman aircraft bombed the Jordan Valley garrison and on 11 April 1918 a series of Ottoman attacks were made on Ghoraniyeh bridgehead, on El Mussallabeh hill and on the Auja position. This attack is referred to by the British as the 'Turkish Attack on the Jordan Bridgeheads'.

Ghoraniyeh bridgehead

This defensive position covered the bridge and consisted of trenching and barbed wire and was covered by guns from the western bank. The 1st Light Horse Brigade was heavily attacked at 04:00 by the Ottoman 48th Division. They pushed forward to within 100 yards (91.4 m) of the line but were heavily shelled by covering artillery and at 12:30 a regiment of light horse rode out and attacked their flank. Several attempts by the Ottomans to send forward reinforcements were defeated by the British gunners. During the night the Ottomans withdrew.

The British section guns were on the Pimple and the other 100 yards (91.4 m) to the left with the old road to the Ghoraniyeh crossing leading straight to our gun on the Pimple. At dawn a fairly large and close formation of Ottoman soldiers advanced straight at the Pimple gun which opened fire supported by light horse Hotchkiss light machine guns on the right. Although the action did not end for some hours the first 10 minutes decided it.

Auja position

German and Ottoman guns heavily shelled the lines on the Wadi Auja to the north of Jericho and the Ottoman attacks were beaten off.

Mussallabeh hill

Here the Ottomans launched an infantry assault by a composite force of four battalions and several batteries after an hour's bombardment. At one or two places they gained a footing, but after a day of close fighting they withdrew back to the foot of the hills of Moab, to Shunet Nimrin on the eastern side of the Jordan.

The casualties were between 500 and 2,500 Ottoman dead and 100 prisoners with Anzac Mounted Division suffering 26 killed, 65 wounded and 28 horses killed, 62 horses wounded.

Shunet Nimrin demonstration on 18 April

Arab attacks were made on Maan between 15 and 17 April during which they captured 70 prisoners and two machine guns, temporarily occupying the railway station but failed to capture the main position.

Lieutenant General Chetwode (commander XX Corps) was ordered to demonstrate in force against the Shunet Nimrin position on the road from Ghoranyeh to Amman, with a view to encouraging the idea of further operations against Amman and attracting more Ottoman reinforcements to Shunet Nimrin rather than sending them against the Hedjaz Arabs at Maan.

By late April the Shunet Nimrin the garrison was about 8,000 strong and General Allenby decided to attack this force to either capture it or compel it to retire. Major General Chaytor (commander Anzac Mounted Division) was given command of the 180th Infantry Brigade, 10th Heavy Battery, 383rd Siege Battery with the 20th Indian Brigade (less two battalions) holding the Ghoraniyeh bridgehead and the Anzac Mounted Division to complete the operation. Chetwode ordered Chaytor not to commit to a general engagement but if the enemy retired to follow them up.

But on 18 April the Ottoman garrison at Shunet Nimrin produced such heavy fire that the mounted troops, including the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade were unable to even approach the foothills. As a result of this operation the Ottomans further strengthened their position at Shunet Nimrin. On 20 April Allenby ordered Lieutenant General Chauvel (commander Desert Mounted Corps) to take over the Jordan section of the line from Chetwode, to destroy Ottoman forces around Shunet Nimrin and to capture Es Salt.

Second Transjordan attack, April–May 1918

Following the unsuccessful first Transjordan attack on Amman by Shea's force, Allenby ordered a reluctant Chauvel to attack Shunet Nimrin and Es Salt with a force one third larger than that which attacked Amman. But in the five weeks between these two operations British GHQ estimated the German and Ottoman forces in the area had doubled.

The second Transjordan attack was equally unsuccessful; risked the capture of a mounted division but is widely accepted as fulfilling Allenby's strategic aim of focusing enemy attention on the Transjordan area and away from the Mediterranean coast where he would make a successful breakthrough

Battle of Megiddo

Battle of Megiddo refers to one of the major battles fought near the ancient site of Megiddo in the Jezreel Valley of northern Israel. Of these, the first is by far the most common allusion:...

in September.In a letter to Wigram dated 5 May Allenby describes the visit of the Duke of Connaught and in detail his campaign from the Defence of Jerusalem in late December onwards. [Hughes 2004, pp. 148–53]

Summer attacks along the front line

From the middle of May to about the middle of October the front line is virtually dry but temperatures vary greatly from the Mediterranean Sea; the maritime plain is almost sub-tropical with sea breezes and an average temperature of 80 °F (26.7 °C) while in the Judean Hills temperatures can vary by as much as 20 F-change during a single day and in the Jordan Valley shade temperatures of between 100 – are common with high humidity. This heat on the maritime plain, in the hills and in the Jordan Valley is accompanied by dust and insect pests including sand-flies and malarial mosquitoes which are common along the whole of the front line.

During the hot summer months of 1918 several British mainly small scale raids were made to improve Allied positions on the coastal plain and in the Judean Hills. These was one small British attack designed to improve the front on the coast, several British raids including one very large scale raid and one minor Ottoman attack.

On 8 June 1918 the 7th Infantry Division attacked two hills 1 miles (1.6 km) from the sea. The objectives were quickly taken after the 03:45 assault by 21st Indian Brigade but the Ottoman defenders counterattacked at 06:40 after heavily shelling the Indian brigade; these counterattacks being repulsed. British casualties were 63 killed and 204 wounded; 110 prisoners were captured along with two heavy and five light machine guns. The two hills which had been useful observation posts to the enemy were consolidated and remained in British control.

On 13 July an Ottoman attack on the Ra-fat salient held by the 3/3rd Gurkhas (232nd Brigade) was preceded by one of the heaviest bombardments experienced in Palestine. The bombardment, lasting for just over an hour, began at 17:15 and resulted in the village burning but the Gurkhas met the attackers by immediately rushing their defences. The fighting continued until after dark during which 52 soldiers were killed.
During the night of 27 July a successful raid was carried out by five platoons 53rd Sikhs (28th Indian Brigade) against Ottoman trenches on Piffer Ridge 3 miles (4.8 km) east of the Mediterranean shore at El Haram. The Ottoman garrison was taken by surprise and 33 captured at the cost of four casualties.

After exhaustive training, on the night of 12/13 August the 10th Infantry Division carried out a raid which consisted of a series of attacks on Ottoman defences on the 5000 yards (4,572 m) long Burj–Ghurabeh Ridge just west of the Jerusalem to Nablus road and about 2000 yards (1,828.8 m) from the front line by regiments, brigades, companies and platoons of Indian troops. They were supported by 147 guns and howitzers of the 53rd Divisional Artillery (less two howitzer batteries and the IX British Mountain Artillery Brigade.

One of these attacks was on a 4000 yards (3,657.6 m) long, steep-faced ridge west of the Nablus road, included Khan Gharabe, and formed a part of the XX Corps' front where Ottoman defences were virtually continuous. The enemy line was held by 600 rifles of the Ottoman 33rd Regiment (11th Division). The British and Indian infantry force made a descent of several hundred feet before climbing up steep rocky ground. The Ottoman defences were strongly held and well wired and fierce fighting at close quarters ensued, but the attacks from both flanks with completely success. Heavy losses estimated to have been 450 were inflicted on the Ottoman units and 250 prisoners captured.

A wire-cutting bombardment began at 21:55 and shortly after the 54th Sikhs and two companies of 1/Leinster were deployed south east of the right flank of the ridge while the 1/101st Grenadiers and two companies of 1/Leinster at the western end were over 2.5 miles (4 km) away. The two Indian regiments advanced simultaneously, capturing the flanking Ottoman entrenchments then the Leinster companies turned inwards accompanied by a barrage which also turned inwards from either flank in front of them. Although the two left-hand companies did not reach their objectives the attack was completely successful and the forces withdrawn about 12:15 on 13 August. Captures included 239 prisoners, 14 machine guns and enemy casualties were estimated at 450 while the 29th Brigade suffered 107 casualties.

At the same time as the attack was being made to the west of the Nablus road, the 179th and 181st Brigades of the 60th Infantry Division carried out an attack on a front of 5 miles (8 km) east of the Nablus Road mainly without artillery support when a 9 miles (14.5 km) front from Keen's Knoll to Kh. 'Amuriye was attacked. Table Hill, Bidston Hill, Forfar Hill Fife Knoll, Kh. 'Amuriye and the village of Turmus 'Aya were all successfully attacked although only eight prisoners were captured at a cost of 57 casualties.

Occupation of the Jordan Valley

In February, after the Capture of Jericho the occupation of the valley began with the Auckland Mounted Rifles Brigade (New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade) remaining to patrol the area. After the two unsuccessful Transjordan attacks on Amman

First Transjordan attack on Amman (1918)

and Shunet Nimrin and Es Salt

Second Transjordan attack on Shunet Nimrin and Es Salt (1918)

Officially known by the British as the Second attack at Es Salt and by the Germans as the Second Battle of the Jordan, the Second Transjordan attack on Shunet Nimrin and Es Salt was fought between 30 April and 4 May 1918 in the Middle East during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War I...

the Jordan Valley was garrisoned by the Anzac and Australian Mounted Divisions and the 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions with the 20th Indian Infantry Brigade until September when Chaytor's force ended the occupation of the valley by advancing to capture Jisr ed Damieh, Es Salt and Amman.

German and Ottoman attacks – 14 July 1918

During the occupation of the Jordan Valley, two attacks were made by German and Ottoman forces; in the hills on a salient held by Australian Light Horse which protected front line positions in the valley, where the mainly German force was routed, and a second operation to the east of the Jordan River on the plain, where an Ottoman cavalry brigade, had deployed six regiments to attack the El Hinu and Makhadet Hijla bridgeheads; they were attacked by Indian Lancers and routed.

Morale

Leave home from the Egyptian Expeditionary Force was, except on the smallest scale, impossible while leave to Egypt; to Cairo and Alexandria was fairly freely given. Comforts and small pleasures were not as well provided for to the Egyptian Expeditionary Force as those provided to the British Expeditionary Force in Europe. But canteens were established in all the main towns behind the front and kiosks with soda fountains selling tobacco, sweets and cakes were set up close to the line. In the year 1918 the troops in Egypt paid £4,500,000 for comforts bought from these canteens and kiosks.

While the state of morale in the Egyptian Expeditionary Force may have been better than the British Expeditionary Force before the German Spring Offensive in France began to weaken. In the Levant, as the campaign season approached, Allenby intensified training and applied strict discipline.
A welcome decline in the morale of the Ottoman and German forces was demonstrated on 14 July, however, it may have had more to do with the ambitions of Pan–Ottoman elements clashing with German concerns on the Western Front and in Palestine. The Ottomans' focus shifted to occupying the Caucasus, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan and northern Persia after Russia exited the war in March. The treaty of Brest-Litovsk, resulted in the loss of the Anatolian provinces and the return of the Trans-Caucasian territory Russia had won in 1878, to the Ottoman Empire.

Withdrawal of German contingents

In the spring of 1918 'Pasha II Reinforcement', a strong contingent of German troops had arrived but Liman von Sanders was suddenly told that all German troops in the country were to be withdrawn as a result of the Ottoman Empire moving its interest and support from Palestine to Anatolia and the Trans-Caucasian territories.The date on which Liman von Sanders was told to withdraw all German troops is not given, and he, himself, was at his headquarters at Nazareth on 19 September 1918. [Falls 1930 Vol. 2 Part II pp. 535–7] By September its claimed that so many were deserting from the Ottoman army that there were more deserters than soldiers in the army. In Palestine the Ottoman army was starved of reinforcements, supplies, sick with malaria and the soldiers were "hungry, ragged, verminous, comfortless, hopeless, [and] outnumbered."

But the weak Ottoman infantry divisions had more heavy machine guns than the British – about 60 per division so that west of the Jordan the Ottoman infantry had 600 against 350 in the British and French infantry. They were not so strong in light machine guns, but including the German troops, [sic] there were 450 west of the Jordan. The total machine gun personnel of a division was approximately 800 which increased the fighting strength of the force very considerably. The increasing use of machine guns from the beginning of the war meant that by 1918 the weak divisions of all sides were stronger than those of 1914.

Overall, however, by September 1918 the British Empire force was considerably stronger than the Ottoman Empire force in Palestine.

Jordan Valley deception

As the Australian Mounted Division and the 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions left the Jordan Valley in preparation for the coming Megiddo offensive, they moved under the cover of darkness to olive groves around Jaffa. the Anzac Mounted Division, the 20th Indian Infantry Brigade, the 1st and 2nd Battalions British West Indies Regiment and the 38th and Jewish battalions continued to garrison the valley. Steps were taken to make it appear the valley was still fully garrisoned; these included building a bridge in the valley and infantry were marched into the Jordan Valley by day, driven out by motor lorry at night, and marched back in daylight over and over again. In the vacated regimental lines the tents were left standing and 142 fires were lit each night and dummy horses, with real horse–rugs on and real nose–bags on 15,000 dummy horses' heads were made from canvas and stuffed with straw. Every day mules dragged branches up and down the valley (or the same horses were ridden backwards and forwards all day, as if watering) to keep the dust in thick clouds.

Allenby's staff feed enemy spies with a mass of false information and clues including a grand race meeting on 19 September, one of a number which took place in the coastal plan, was announced but never took place. And Fast’s Hotel in Jerusalem was suddenly evacuated, sentry boxes placed at its entrances and it was rumoured to become Allenby’s advanced headquarters for a renewal of the Transjordan campaign.
During this time enemy aircraft were unable to obtain reliable reconnaissance as the British and Australian aircraft had virtual complete dominance of the skies. Only four enemy aircraft succeeded in crossing the lines during the period of concentration, prior to Megiddo as against over 100 during one week in June. However, the long range guns at Shunet Nimrin known as "Nimrin Nelly" and "Jericho Jane" continued to send shrapnel shells 10 miles (16.1 km) to fall on Jericho and the Jordan Valley garrisons.

Logistics

Due to the continuing German submarine blockade in 1918 30,000 tons of wheat, 30,000 tons of barley, 6,000 tons of lentils, 12,000 tons of beans, 275,000 tons of tibben, 25,000 tons of millet were collected from the population and redistributed to the Egyptian Expeditionary Force. A big fishing fleet on Lake Manzala with curing factories at Port Said and Kantara supplied fish to hospitals and the surplus was dried and smoked for the army. Egypt supplied all sugar, hay-stuffs and all fresh vegetables except for a small proportion from Palestine.

While the German and Ottoman forces had well established infrastructure the Egyptian Expeditionary Force now enjoyed a double railway line across the Sinai to Rafa on which over 2,000 tons were transported daily. This railway line which had been extended beyond the Wadi Ghuzzeh before the Third Battle of Gaza

Third Battle of Gaza

had been extended to Beersheba by 3 May 1918. Supplies were transferred to lorries for the trip from Beersheba to Jerusalem via Hebron and Bethlehem. The old Ottoman railway from Abu Irqaiyiq was relaid up to Junction Station on the maritime plain and on 15 June the relaid railway line from Ludd to Jerusalem was complete. The Jaffa to Ludd section was also relaid and on some sections both captured railway trains and carriages were run alongside British gauge track, trains and carriages. Light railways were built to the rear of the front line; from Jerusalem to Bire and from Sarona to Jlil. By July 1918 a railway bridge across the Suez Canal had been completed, considerably speeding the journey to the front lines.

Battle of Megiddo

As the dry season approached General Allenby had intended to advance to secure Tiberias, Haifa and the Yarmuk Valley towards Hauran and the Sea of Galilee towards Damascus.

General Allenby finally launched his long-delayed attack on 19 September 1918. The campaign has been called the Battle of Megiddo (which is a transliteration of the Hebrew name of an ancient town known in the west as Armageddon

Armageddon

Armageddon is, according to the Bible, the site of a battle during the end times, variously interpreted as either a literal or symbolic location...

). Again, the British made major efforts to deceive the Ottomans as to their actual intended target of operations. This effort was, again, successful and the Ottomans were taken by surprise when the British attacked Meggido in a sudden storm. The Ottoman troops started a full scale retreat, the Royal Air Force

Royal Air Force

The Royal Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Formed on 1 April 1918, it is the oldest independent air force in the world...

bombed the fleeing columns of men from the air and within a week, the Ottoman army in Palestine had ceased to exist as a military force.
The ultimate goal of Allenby's and Feisal's armies was Damascus

Damascus

. Two separate Allied columns marched towards Damascus. The first, composed mainly of Australian and Indian cavalry, approached from Galilee, while the other column, consisting of Indian cavalry and the ad hoc militia following T.E. Lawrence, travelled northwards along the Hejaz Railway. Australian Light Horse troops marched unopposed into Damascus on 1 October 1918, despite the presence of some 12,000 Ottoman soldiers at Baramke Barracks. Major Olden of the Australian 10th Light Horse Regiment received the Official Surrender of the City at 7 am at the Serai. Later that day, Lawrence's irregulars entered Damascus to claim full credit for its capture.

The war in Palestine was over but in Syria lasted for a further month. The Ottoman government was quite prepared to sacrifice these non-Turkish provinces without surrendering. Indeed, while this battle was raging, the Ottoman Empire sent an expeditionary force into Russia to enlarge the ethnic Turkish elements of the empire. It was only after the surrender of Bulgaria, which put Ottoman Empire into a vulnerable position for invasion, that the Ottoman government was compelled to sign an armistice on 30 October 1918, and surrendered outright two days later. Six hundred years of Ottoman rule over the Middle East

Middle East

The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...

had come to an end.

In popular media

This campaign has been depicted in several films. The most famous is Lawrence of Arabia
Lawrence of Arabia (film)
Lawrence of Arabia is a 1962 British film based on the life of T. E. Lawrence. It was directed by David Lean and produced by Sam Spiegel through his British company, Horizon Pictures, with the screenplay by Robert Bolt and Michael Wilson. The film stars Peter O'Toole in the title role. It is widely...

(1962), though it focused primarily on T.E. Lawrence and the Arab Revolt. Other films dealing with this topic include Forty Thousand Horsemen
Forty Thousand Horsemen
Forty Thousand Horsemen is a 1940 Australian war film directed by Charles Chauvel. The film tells the story of the Australian Light Horse cavalry which operated in the desert at the Sinai and Palestine Campaign during World War I. It follows the adventures of three rowdy heroes in fighting and...

(1941), and The Lighthorsemen
The Lighthorsemen (film)
The Lighthorsemen is a 1987 Australian feature film about the men of a World War I light horse unit involved in the 1917 Battle of Beersheeba...

(1987), with Peter Phelps

Peter Phelps

Peter Phelps is an Australian actor, singer and writer. He is notable for his role of Peter Church in the television drama, Stingers and Trevor Cole, in Baywatch...

and Nick Waters, both of which focused on the role of the ANZAC forces during the campaign.

Summary

The British suffered a total of 550,000 casualties: more than 90% of these were not battle losses but instead attributable to disease, heat and other secondary causes. Total Ottoman losses are unknown but almost certainly larger: an entire army was lost in the fighting and the Ottomans poured a vast number of troops into the front over the three years of combat.

Despite the uncertainty of casualty counts, the historical consequences of this campaign are hard to overestimate. The British conquest of Palestine led directly to the British mandate

British Mandate

British Mandate may refer to:*British Mandate for Palestine*British Mandate of Mesopotamia...

over Palestine and the Trans-Jordan which, in turn, paved the way for the creation of the states of Israel

Israel

The State of Israel is a parliamentary republic located in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea...

, Jordan

Jordan

, Lebanon

Lebanon

Lebanon , officially the Republic of LebanonRepublic of Lebanon is the most common term used by Lebanese government agencies. The term Lebanese Republic, a literal translation of the official Arabic and French names that is not used in today's world. Arabic is the most common language spoken among...

, and Syria

Syria

Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....

External links

First World War.com. Defence of the Suez Canal, 1915. Retrieved 19 December 2005.
Australian Light Horse Studies Centre
Palestine pages of 'Turkey in WW1' web site
Sinai campaign (NZHistory.net.nz)
Palestine campaign (NZHistory.net.nz)
The Photographs of Palestine Campaign
Library of Congress's American Colony in Jerusalem's Photo Album

The source of this article is wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. The text of this article is licensed under the GFDL.

Defence of the Suez Canal

Defence of Egypt the Eastern Frontier, 1914–1915

Ottoman advance towards the Suez Canal

First Suez Offensive

Improvements to Suez Canal Defences

Further Ottoman operations in Sinai

Forward Defence of Suez Canal, 1916

Sykes Picot

Destruction of water

Sinai campaign begins

Occupation of Romani

Reconnaissances, May to June 1916

Battle of Romani

Arab Revolt

Sinai campaign

Bir el Mazar Raid, September 1916

Maghara Hills Raid, October 1916

Creation of Eastern Frontier Force

Aerial bombing and reconnaissance patrols

Aerial bombing of Beersheba, November 1916

Advance to Bir el Mazar

Battle of Magdhaba, December 1916

Battle of Rafa, January 1917

Engagements at Magdhaba and Rafa comparisons

End of Sinai Campaign

Raid on Nekhl

Summation of Campaign

Gaza campaign

Southern Levant

Eastern Force and Desert Column reorganisation

Ottoman Army Units

Ottoman retreat from Shellal

First Battle of Gaza, March 1917

Second Battle of Gaza, April 1917

General Allenby

Battle of El Buggar Ridge

Battle of Beersheba, October 1917

Third Battle of Gaza

Advance to Mughar Ridge, November 1917

Capture of Jerusalem, December 1917

Report on condition of animals

Consolidation, 1918

Westerners versus Easterners

Administration of captured territory

State of the Ottoman Army

Condition of British infantry – Judean Hills

Aerial superiority

Mounted divisions move back to rest camps

Conscription

Consolidation of territorial gains

Capture of Jericho, February 1918

EEF advance front line between 8–12 March

First Transjordan attack, March 1918

Spring Offensive on the Western Front

Reorganisation of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force

EEF attack in the Judean Hills, 9–11 April

Ottoman attacks on 11 April

Ghoraniyeh bridgehead

Auja position

Mussallabeh hill

Shunet Nimrin demonstration on 18 April

Second Transjordan attack, April–May 1918

Summer attacks along the front line

Occupation of the Jordan Valley

German and Ottoman attacks – 14 July 1918

Morale

Withdrawal of German contingents

Jordan Valley deception

Logistics

Battle of Megiddo

In popular media

Summary

See also

External links