Sixteen Prefectures
Encyclopedia
The Sixteen Prefectures are a region in northern China
stretching from present-day Beijing
westward to Datong
. In most areas, it is approximately seventy to one hundred miles in width. It covers a strategic area of modern Hebei
and Shanxi
that became the focus of contention between the Khitan
Liao Dynasty
to the north and the Shatuo Turk Later Tang Dynasty
, Later Jin Dynasty
and Later Han Dynasty
, along with the Han Chinese
Later Zhou Dynasty
and the Song Dynasty
.
(modern-day Beijing
) westward to Yungang Caves (near modern day Datong
) in Shanxi
. The area is mountainous with numerous strategic passes vital to guarding the Chinese heartland from the steppe tribes to the north. It also runs along the northern edge of what were in the tenth century the remnants of the original wall system that separated traditional Chinese lands from those of the steppes to the north.
fell in 907, a new power was rising to the north of China
. Known as the Khitan
, they had just crowned a new tribal leader by the name of Abaoji
, the first from the Yila tribe after some two centuries of leadership by the Yaolian clan. As Abaoji
was building up his power in the north among the peoples of the steppe, northern China was facing instability and turmoil.
The first of the Five Dynasties was the Later Liang Dynasty
, which was founded in 907 and lasted until 923. During this period of time, the Sixteen Prefectures were still under Chinese control and the greatest threat to Later Liang security was not the Khitan, but an assimilated people known as the Shatuo Turks who held onto their power base in Shanxi
.
The Shatuo Turks gained in strength through the 910s until finally in 923, they were able to overcome the Later Liang Dynasty
with Khitan assistance to found The Later Tang Dynasty
. The Later Tang were also able to hold onto the Sixteen Prefectures. Not only that, they were able to make inroads into the south. It would be the largest of the Five Dynasties. However, it was not long before relations with the Khitan, who were by now becoming a significant force to the north, had soured.
supported a rebellion against the Later Tang Dynasty
which resulted in the founding of the Later Jin Dynasty
. By this time, the Khitan were powerful enough to control the fate of much of northern China, and used their role in the formation of the dynasty to demand the Sixteen Prefectures be ceded to them, which they were.
Under Khitan rule, the Sixteen Prefectures were divided into two of the five divisions of the Liao Dynasty
, with the Southern Capital being at the site of modern-day Beijing
, and the Western Capital being at Datong
. Both sections were part of the Southern Chancellery, one of two broader divisions the Liao Dynasty
had been divided into.
The Sixteen Prefectures had become the springboard from which the Liao Dynasty
would exert its influence on northern China. Khitan pressure exerted from the Southern Capital resulted in the fall of the Later Jin Dynasty
in 946. The Liao would actually push further into northern China and reached as far south as the Yellow River
. However, Emperor Taizong
became disillusioned with the notion of governing so many sedentary people and decided to retreat back to his Southern Capital. However, heavy Chinese resistance on the retreat route and Taizong’s death in 947 provoked a succession crisis in the Liao government, and an opportunity for a new dynasty in northern China.
Still, the territory remained in Liao hand. However, by 960, the Song Dynasty
had ended the turmoil that northern China had endured since 907, and by 979, they had essentially unified the kingdom, with the exception of the Sixteen Prefectures.
was still focusing on the south where it was attempting to reunite the bulk of the Chinese realm. However, despite the exchange of embassies in 974 and the growth of profitable trade between the two, there were still two fatal flaws to the relationship. One concerned continued support for the remnant Shatuo Turk Northern Han
state. The other was the Song Dynasty
’s refusal to accept continued Liao possession of the Sixteen Prefectures.
When the Song were successful in finally incorporating the Northern Han
in 979, the emperor decided to launch an offensive against the Liao in the Sixteen Prefectures. Emperor Taizong
led his weary and ill-supplied troops from toward the Liao Southern Capital (present-day Beijing
.) The Liao
boundary
was reached in May and they initially encountered little resistance. By July 20, they had attacked the Southern Capital. Ten days later, the first contingent of Liao cavalry
arrived. The ensuing Battle of Gaoliang River
on August 1 near the Southern Capital resulted in a complete rout of Song
forces, who had to retreat back to Kaifeng
. The Sixteen Prefectures would remain in Liao
hands.
The Song
once again tried to attack in 986, four years after an eleven-year-old boy had assumed the Liao
throne
. They sent forces against the territory on three fronts, but the Liao
scored decisive victories over all three Song forces. The fifteen-year-old Emperor Shengzong
personally led the Liao
’s decisive victory at the Battle of Qigou Pass.
Through the 990s, relations between the Song and Liao steadily worsened. Beginning in 999, the Liao would use the Sixteen Prefectures as the launching pad for victorious, but inconsequential attacks on the Song. Then, in 1004, Liao emperor Shengzong launched another major campaign against the Song. The Shanyuan Treaty
signed in early 1005 resulted in annual tribute paid to the Liao Dynasty
by the Song Dynasty
.
This treaty was the guide by which relations between the two dynasties would progress until the fall of the Liao Dynasty
. The Sixteen Prefectures would remain in their possession until that time.
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
stretching from present-day Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
westward to Datong
Datong
Datong is a prefecture-level city in northern Shanxi Province of North China, located a few hundred kilometres west by rail from Beijing with an elevation of...
. In most areas, it is approximately seventy to one hundred miles in width. It covers a strategic area of modern Hebei
Hebei
' is a province of the People's Republic of China in the North China region. Its one-character abbreviation is "" , named after Ji Province, a Han Dynasty province that included what is now southern Hebei...
and Shanxi
Shanxi
' is a province in Northern China. Its one-character abbreviation is "晋" , after the state of Jin that existed here during the Spring and Autumn Period....
that became the focus of contention between the Khitan
Khitan people
thumb|250px|Khitans [[Eagle hunting|using eagles to hunt]], painted during the Chinese [[Song Dynasty]].The Khitan people , or Khitai, Kitan, or Kidan, were a nomadic Mongolic people, originally located at Mongolia and Manchuria from the 4th century...
Liao Dynasty
Liao Dynasty
The Liao Dynasty , also known as the Khitan Empire was an empire in East Asia that ruled over the regions of Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of northern China proper between 9071125...
to the north and the Shatuo Turk Later Tang Dynasty
Later Tang Dynasty
The Later Tang Dynasty was a short-lived dynasty that lasted from 923 to 937 one of the five dynasties during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was also the first in a series of three dynasties ruled by the Shatuo Turks...
, Later Jin Dynasty
Later Jin Dynasty (Five Dynasties)
Note that there are four periods of Chinese history using the name "Jin" The Later Jìn was one of the Five Dynasties during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period in China. It was founded by Shi Jingtang, posthumously known as Gaozu of Later Jin...
and Later Han Dynasty
Later Han Dynasty (Five Dynasties)
The Later Han Dynasty was founded in 947. It was the fourth of the Five Dynasties and the third consecutive Shatuo Turk dynasty...
, along with the Han Chinese
Han Chinese
Han Chinese are an ethnic group native to China and are the largest single ethnic group in the world.Han Chinese constitute about 92% of the population of the People's Republic of China , 98% of the population of the Republic of China , 78% of the population of Singapore, and about 20% of the...
Later Zhou Dynasty
Later Zhou Dynasty
The Later Zhou Dynasty was the last a succession of five dynasties that controlled most of northern China during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, which lasted from 907 to 960 and bridged the gap between the Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty.-Founding of the Dynasty:Guo Wei, a Han...
and the Song Dynasty
Song Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
.
Geography
The Sixteen Prefectures were in reality nineteen prefectures. They stretched from the coast of the Bo Sea to YanYan (Ten Kingdoms)
Yan was a very short lived kingdom in the vicinity of present-day Beijing at the beginning of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, which is traditionally dated as being from 907 to 960...
(modern-day Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
) westward to Yungang Caves (near modern day Datong
Datong
Datong is a prefecture-level city in northern Shanxi Province of North China, located a few hundred kilometres west by rail from Beijing with an elevation of...
) in Shanxi
Shanxi
' is a province in Northern China. Its one-character abbreviation is "晋" , after the state of Jin that existed here during the Spring and Autumn Period....
. The area is mountainous with numerous strategic passes vital to guarding the Chinese heartland from the steppe tribes to the north. It also runs along the northern edge of what were in the tenth century the remnants of the original wall system that separated traditional Chinese lands from those of the steppes to the north.
Five Dynasties
At the same time the Tang DynastyTang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
fell in 907, a new power was rising to the north of China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
. Known as the Khitan
Khitan people
thumb|250px|Khitans [[Eagle hunting|using eagles to hunt]], painted during the Chinese [[Song Dynasty]].The Khitan people , or Khitai, Kitan, or Kidan, were a nomadic Mongolic people, originally located at Mongolia and Manchuria from the 4th century...
, they had just crowned a new tribal leader by the name of Abaoji
Emperor Taizu of Liao
The Emperor Taizu of Liao was the first emperor of the Liao Dynasty . His given name was Abaoji . Some sources also suggest that the surname Yelü was adopted during his lifetime, though there is no unanimity on this point....
, the first from the Yila tribe after some two centuries of leadership by the Yaolian clan. As Abaoji
Emperor Taizu of Liao
The Emperor Taizu of Liao was the first emperor of the Liao Dynasty . His given name was Abaoji . Some sources also suggest that the surname Yelü was adopted during his lifetime, though there is no unanimity on this point....
was building up his power in the north among the peoples of the steppe, northern China was facing instability and turmoil.
The first of the Five Dynasties was the Later Liang Dynasty
Later Liang Dynasty
The Later Liang was one of the Five Dynasties during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period in China. It was founded by Zhu Wen, posthumously known as Taizu of Later Liang, after he forced the last emperor of the Tang dynasty to abdicate in his favour...
, which was founded in 907 and lasted until 923. During this period of time, the Sixteen Prefectures were still under Chinese control and the greatest threat to Later Liang security was not the Khitan, but an assimilated people known as the Shatuo Turks who held onto their power base in Shanxi
Shanxi
' is a province in Northern China. Its one-character abbreviation is "晋" , after the state of Jin that existed here during the Spring and Autumn Period....
.
The Shatuo Turks gained in strength through the 910s until finally in 923, they were able to overcome the Later Liang Dynasty
Later Liang Dynasty
The Later Liang was one of the Five Dynasties during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period in China. It was founded by Zhu Wen, posthumously known as Taizu of Later Liang, after he forced the last emperor of the Tang dynasty to abdicate in his favour...
with Khitan assistance to found The Later Tang Dynasty
Later Tang Dynasty
The Later Tang Dynasty was a short-lived dynasty that lasted from 923 to 937 one of the five dynasties during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was also the first in a series of three dynasties ruled by the Shatuo Turks...
. The Later Tang were also able to hold onto the Sixteen Prefectures. Not only that, they were able to make inroads into the south. It would be the largest of the Five Dynasties. However, it was not long before relations with the Khitan, who were by now becoming a significant force to the north, had soured.
Liao Rule
The KhitanKhitan people
thumb|250px|Khitans [[Eagle hunting|using eagles to hunt]], painted during the Chinese [[Song Dynasty]].The Khitan people , or Khitai, Kitan, or Kidan, were a nomadic Mongolic people, originally located at Mongolia and Manchuria from the 4th century...
supported a rebellion against the Later Tang Dynasty
Later Tang Dynasty
The Later Tang Dynasty was a short-lived dynasty that lasted from 923 to 937 one of the five dynasties during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was also the first in a series of three dynasties ruled by the Shatuo Turks...
which resulted in the founding of the Later Jin Dynasty
Later Jin Dynasty (Five Dynasties)
Note that there are four periods of Chinese history using the name "Jin" The Later Jìn was one of the Five Dynasties during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period in China. It was founded by Shi Jingtang, posthumously known as Gaozu of Later Jin...
. By this time, the Khitan were powerful enough to control the fate of much of northern China, and used their role in the formation of the dynasty to demand the Sixteen Prefectures be ceded to them, which they were.
Under Khitan rule, the Sixteen Prefectures were divided into two of the five divisions of the Liao Dynasty
Liao Dynasty
The Liao Dynasty , also known as the Khitan Empire was an empire in East Asia that ruled over the regions of Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of northern China proper between 9071125...
, with the Southern Capital being at the site of modern-day Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
, and the Western Capital being at Datong
Datong
Datong is a prefecture-level city in northern Shanxi Province of North China, located a few hundred kilometres west by rail from Beijing with an elevation of...
. Both sections were part of the Southern Chancellery, one of two broader divisions the Liao Dynasty
Liao Dynasty
The Liao Dynasty , also known as the Khitan Empire was an empire in East Asia that ruled over the regions of Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of northern China proper between 9071125...
had been divided into.
The Sixteen Prefectures had become the springboard from which the Liao Dynasty
Liao Dynasty
The Liao Dynasty , also known as the Khitan Empire was an empire in East Asia that ruled over the regions of Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of northern China proper between 9071125...
would exert its influence on northern China. Khitan pressure exerted from the Southern Capital resulted in the fall of the Later Jin Dynasty
Later Jin Dynasty (Five Dynasties)
Note that there are four periods of Chinese history using the name "Jin" The Later Jìn was one of the Five Dynasties during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period in China. It was founded by Shi Jingtang, posthumously known as Gaozu of Later Jin...
in 946. The Liao would actually push further into northern China and reached as far south as the Yellow River
Yellow River
The Yellow River or Huang He, formerly known as the Hwang Ho, is the second-longest river in China and the sixth-longest in the world at the estimated length of . Originating in the Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai Province in western China, it flows through nine provinces of China and empties into...
. However, Emperor Taizong
Emperor Taizong of Liao
The Emperor Taizong of Liao , born as Yelü Deguang , was the second emperor of the Khitan Empire .-Succession to the Throne:...
became disillusioned with the notion of governing so many sedentary people and decided to retreat back to his Southern Capital. However, heavy Chinese resistance on the retreat route and Taizong’s death in 947 provoked a succession crisis in the Liao government, and an opportunity for a new dynasty in northern China.
Still, the territory remained in Liao hand. However, by 960, the Song Dynasty
Song Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
had ended the turmoil that northern China had endured since 907, and by 979, they had essentially unified the kingdom, with the exception of the Sixteen Prefectures.
Liao-Song and the Sixteen Prefectures
The Liao and Song were actually developing reasonably amicable relations in the 960s into the mid-970s. Of course, the Song DynastySong Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
was still focusing on the south where it was attempting to reunite the bulk of the Chinese realm. However, despite the exchange of embassies in 974 and the growth of profitable trade between the two, there were still two fatal flaws to the relationship. One concerned continued support for the remnant Shatuo Turk Northern Han
Northern Han
The Northern Han kingdom is a state of the Ten Kingdoms in the Period of Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms. It was founded by Liu Min , formerly known as Liu Chong , and lasted from 951 – 979.-Founding of the Northern Han:...
state. The other was the Song Dynasty
Song Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
’s refusal to accept continued Liao possession of the Sixteen Prefectures.
When the Song were successful in finally incorporating the Northern Han
Northern Han
The Northern Han kingdom is a state of the Ten Kingdoms in the Period of Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms. It was founded by Liu Min , formerly known as Liu Chong , and lasted from 951 – 979.-Founding of the Northern Han:...
in 979, the emperor decided to launch an offensive against the Liao in the Sixteen Prefectures. Emperor Taizong
Emperor Taizong of Song
Emperor Taizong , born Zhao Kuangyi, was the second emperor of the Song Dynasty of China from 976 to 997. He was the younger brother of Emperor Taizu. His temple name Taizong means "Grand Ancestor".-Overview:...
led his weary and ill-supplied troops from toward the Liao Southern Capital (present-day Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
.) The Liao
Liao Dynasty
The Liao Dynasty , also known as the Khitan Empire was an empire in East Asia that ruled over the regions of Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of northern China proper between 9071125...
boundary
Border
Borders define geographic boundaries of political entities or legal jurisdictions, such as governments, sovereign states, federated states and other subnational entities. Some borders—such as a state's internal administrative borders, or inter-state borders within the Schengen Area—are open and...
was reached in May and they initially encountered little resistance. By July 20, they had attacked the Southern Capital. Ten days later, the first contingent of Liao cavalry
Cavalry
Cavalry or horsemen were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback. Cavalry were historically the third oldest and the most mobile of the combat arms...
arrived. The ensuing Battle of Gaoliang River
Battle of Gaoliang River
The Battle of Gaoliang River was fought in 979 between the Liao Dynasty and Song Dynasty in what is today the city of Beijing. The Liao victory ended a Song campaign to recapture the Sixteen Prefectures in North China....
on August 1 near the Southern Capital resulted in a complete rout of Song
Song Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
forces, who had to retreat back to Kaifeng
Kaifeng
Kaifeng , known previously by several names , is a prefecture-level city in east-central Henan province, Central China. Nearly 5 million people live in the metropolitan area...
. The Sixteen Prefectures would remain in Liao
Liao Dynasty
The Liao Dynasty , also known as the Khitan Empire was an empire in East Asia that ruled over the regions of Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of northern China proper between 9071125...
hands.
The Song
Song Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
once again tried to attack in 986, four years after an eleven-year-old boy had assumed the Liao
Liao Dynasty
The Liao Dynasty , also known as the Khitan Empire was an empire in East Asia that ruled over the regions of Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of northern China proper between 9071125...
throne
Throne
A throne is the official chair or seat upon which a monarch is seated on state or ceremonial occasions. "Throne" in an abstract sense can also refer to the monarchy or the Crown itself, an instance of metonymy, and is also used in many expressions such as "the power behind the...
. They sent forces against the territory on three fronts, but the Liao
Liao Dynasty
The Liao Dynasty , also known as the Khitan Empire was an empire in East Asia that ruled over the regions of Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of northern China proper between 9071125...
scored decisive victories over all three Song forces. The fifteen-year-old Emperor Shengzong
Emperor Shengzong of Liao
Emperor Shengzong of Liao , born as Yelü Longxu , succeeded Emperor Jingzong as Emperor of the Liao Dynasty at the age of 12 in 982. As he was too young to actually rule, his mother, Empress Dowager Xiao, effectively ruled the kingdom...
personally led the Liao
Liao Dynasty
The Liao Dynasty , also known as the Khitan Empire was an empire in East Asia that ruled over the regions of Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of northern China proper between 9071125...
’s decisive victory at the Battle of Qigou Pass.
Through the 990s, relations between the Song and Liao steadily worsened. Beginning in 999, the Liao would use the Sixteen Prefectures as the launching pad for victorious, but inconsequential attacks on the Song. Then, in 1004, Liao emperor Shengzong launched another major campaign against the Song. The Shanyuan Treaty
Shanyuan Treaty
The Shanyuan Treaty in 1004/05 was the pivotal point in the relations between the Northern Song and the Liao Dynasties . The ruling class of the Liao were a people of nomadic origin known as the Khitan who rose in the northeast around present-day Heilongjiang Province...
signed in early 1005 resulted in annual tribute paid to the Liao Dynasty
Liao Dynasty
The Liao Dynasty , also known as the Khitan Empire was an empire in East Asia that ruled over the regions of Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of northern China proper between 9071125...
by the Song Dynasty
Song Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
.
This treaty was the guide by which relations between the two dynasties would progress until the fall of the Liao Dynasty
Liao Dynasty
The Liao Dynasty , also known as the Khitan Empire was an empire in East Asia that ruled over the regions of Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of northern China proper between 9071125...
. The Sixteen Prefectures would remain in their possession until that time.