Slalom canoeing
Encyclopedia
Spraydeck
A spraydeck is a flexible cover for a boat, in particular for a kayak or a canoe. It is used in whitewater, inclement weather or sport to prevent water from entering the boat while allowing one or more passengers to sit in the boat and propel the boat by paddling or rowing.A spraydeck is a sheet...
canoe
Canoe
A canoe or Canadian canoe is a small narrow boat, typically human-powered, though it may also be powered by sails or small electric or gas motors. Canoes are usually pointed at both bow and stern and are normally open on top, but can be decked over A canoe (North American English) or Canadian...
or kayak
Kayak
A kayak is a small, relatively narrow, human-powered boat primarily designed to be manually propelled by means of a double blade paddle.The traditional kayak has a covered deck and one or more cockpits, each seating one paddler...
through a course of hanging gates on river rapids
Whitewater
Whitewater is formed in a rapid, when a river's gradient increases enough to disturb its laminar flow and create turbulence, i.e. form a bubbly, or aerated and unstable current; the frothy water appears white...
in the fastest time possible. It is one of the two kayak and canoeing
Canoeing
Canoeing is an outdoor activity that involves a special kind of canoe.Open canoes may be 'poled' , sailed, 'lined and tracked' or even 'gunnel-bobbed'....
disciplines at the Summer Olympics, and is referred to by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) as Canoe slalom. The other Olympic canoeing discipline is canoe sprint
Canoe racing
This article discusses canoe sprint and canoe marathon, competitive forms of canoeing and kayaking on more or less flat water. Both sports are governed by the International Canoe Federation ....
. There is also wildwater
Whitewater racing
Wildwater canoeing is a competitive discipline of canoeing in which kayaks or Canadian canoes are used to negotiate a stretch of river speedily...
, a non-Olympic paddlesport.
Whitewater slalom racing started in Europe and in the 1940s, the International Canoe Federation
International Canoe Federation
The International Canoe Federation is the umbrella organization of all national canoe organizations worldwide. It is headquartered in Lausanne, Switzerland, and administers all aspects of canoe sport worldwide...
(ICF) was formed to govern the sport. The first World Championships
ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships
The ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships are an international event in canoeing organized by the International Canoe Federation. The World Championships have taken place every year in non-Summer Olympic years since 2002. From 1949 to 1999, they had taken place in odd-numbered years...
were held in 1949
1949 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships
The 1949 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships were held in Geneva, Switzerland under the auspices of International Canoe Federation.-Note:Only two teams competed in the men's C-1 team, men's C-2 team, and women's folding K-1 team events.-Canoe:-Kayak:...
in Switzerland. From 1949 to 1999
1999 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships
The 1999 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships were held in La Seu d'Urgell, Spain under the auspices of International Canoe Federation. A record eleven nations won medals at these championships.-Canoe:-Kayak:-Kayak:-Medals table:-References:***...
, the championships were held every odd-numbered year and have been held annually in non-Summer Olympic years since 2002
2002 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships
The 2002 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships were held in Bourg St.-Maurice, France under the auspices of International Canoe Federation for the record-tying third time. Bourg St.-Maurice hosted the championships previously in 1969 and 1987, and matches the times hosted by Spittal, Austria and...
. Folding kayaks were used from 1949 to 1963
1963 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships
The 1963 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships were held in Spittal, Austria under the auspices of International Canoe Federation. The women's folding K-1 team event resumed for the first time since 1957.-Canoe:-Kayak:-Canoe:-Kayak:-Medals table:...
; and in the early 1960s, boats were made of fiberglass, and nylon. Boats were heavy, usually over 65 pounds (30 kilos). With the advent of kevlar
Kevlar
Kevlar is the registered trademark for a para-aramid synthetic fiber, related to other aramids such as Nomex and Technora. Developed at DuPont in 1965, this high strength material was first commercially used in the early 1970s as a replacement for steel in racing tires...
and carbon fiber
Carbon fiber
Carbon fiber, alternatively graphite fiber, carbon graphite or CF, is a material consisting of fibers about 5–10 μm in diameter and composed mostly of carbon atoms. The carbon atoms are bonded together in crystals that are more or less aligned parallel to the long axis of the fiber...
being used in the 1970s, the widths of the boats were reduced by the ICF, and the boats were reduced in volume to pass the gates, and boats have become much lighter and faster.
From 1949 to 1977
1977 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships
The 1977 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships were held in Spittal, Austria under the auspices of International Canoe Federation for the record setting third time. Spittal hosted the championships previously in 1963 and 1965...
, all World Championships were held in Europe. The first World Championship held in North America was held at Jonquiere, in Quebec, Canada in 1979
1979 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships
The 1979 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships were held in Jonquière, Quebec, Canada under the auspices of International Canoe Federation. This marked the first time the championships were held outside of Europe. The mixed C-2 event was not held at these championships...
.
Rules
Each gate consists of one or two poles hanging from a wire strung across the river. There are 18-25 (although nowadays there are more often near 18 than 25), of which 6-7 must be upstream gates, numbered gates in a course and they are colored as either green (downstream) or red (upstream), indicating the direction they must be negotiated.Upstream gates are often placed in eddies
Eddy (fluid dynamics)
In fluid dynamics, an eddy is the swirling of a fluid and the reverse current created when the fluid flows past an obstacle. The moving fluid creates a space devoid of downstream-flowing fluid on the downstream side of the object...
, where the water is flat or moving slightly upstream; the paddler eddies out from the main current and paddles upstream through the gate.
Most slalom courses take 80 to 120 seconds to complete for the fastest paddlers. Depending on the level of competition, difficulty of course, degree of water turbulence and ability of the other paddlers, times can go up to 200 seconds. Each competitor has two runs on the course, and the final result is based either on the faster run (in smaller races or lower division races) or the sum of the two runs (in national and international competitions). In international competitions (World Cups, World Championships, Olympic Games
Olympic Games
The Olympic Games is a major international event featuring summer and winter sports, in which thousands of athletes participate in a variety of competitions. The Olympic Games have come to be regarded as the world’s foremost sports competition where more than 200 nations participate...
) each competitor does two runs in the qualification round, the times are added to give the qualification result. Depending on the number of participants of the event, 10 to 40 boats make it through to the semi-final; this consists of one run on a different course. The fastest 10 boats per event make it through to the final, where they navigate the semi-final course once more and times of semi-final and final run are added to give the final result.
If the competitor's boat, paddle or body touches either pole of the gate, a time penalty of two seconds is added. If the competitor misses a gate completely, displaces it by more than 45 degrees, goes through the gate upside-down, or goes through it in the wrong order, a 50 second penalty is given. Only one penalty can be incurred on each gate, and this will be taken as the highest one.
- C-1 (canoe single) Men
- C-2 (canoe double) Men (may not be a mixed crew)
- K-1 (kayak single) Men
- K-1 (kayak single) Women
- C-1 (canoe single) Women will be an event in the 2016 Olympics
Development of Slalom Boats
In the 1960s and early 1970s, boats were made of heavy fiberglass and nylon. The boats were high volume and weighed over 65 pounds (30 kilos). In the early 1970s KevlarKevlar
Kevlar is the registered trademark for a para-aramid synthetic fiber, related to other aramids such as Nomex and Technora. Developed at DuPont in 1965, this high strength material was first commercially used in the early 1970s as a replacement for steel in racing tires...
was used and the boats became lighter as well as the volume of the boats was being reduced almost every year as new designs were made. A minimum boat weight was introduced to equalize competition when super light materials began to effect race results. The I.C.F also reduced the width of the boats in the early 1970s. The gates were hung about 10 cm above the water. When racers began making lower volume boats to sneak underneath gates, the gates were raised in response to fears that new boats would be of such low volume as to create a hazard to the paddler. Their low volume sterns allow the boat to slice through the water in a quick turn, or 'pivot'.
Typically, new racing boats cost between $1,200 and $2,500 (or £650 onwards for the cheapest constructions in fiberglass). Usually boats are made with carbon fiber
Carbon fiber
Carbon fiber, alternatively graphite fiber, carbon graphite or CF, is a material consisting of fibers about 5–10 μm in diameter and composed mostly of carbon atoms. The carbon atoms are bonded together in crystals that are more or less aligned parallel to the long axis of the fiber...
, Kevlar
Kevlar
Kevlar is the registered trademark for a para-aramid synthetic fiber, related to other aramids such as Nomex and Technora. Developed at DuPont in 1965, this high strength material was first commercially used in the early 1970s as a replacement for steel in racing tires...
, and fiberglass cloth, using epoxy
Epoxy
Epoxy, also known as polyepoxide, is a thermosetting polymer formed from reaction of an epoxide "resin" with polyamine "hardener". Epoxy has a wide range of applications, including fiber-reinforced plastic materials and general purpose adhesives....
or polyester
Polyester
Polyester is a category of polymers which contain the ester functional group in their main chain. Although there are many polyesters, the term "polyester" as a specific material most commonly refers to polyethylene terephthalate...
resin to hold the layers together. Foam sandwich construction in between layers of carbon
Carbon
Carbon is the chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6. As a member of group 14 on the periodic table, it is nonmetallic and tetravalent—making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds...
, Kevlar
Kevlar
Kevlar is the registered trademark for a para-aramid synthetic fiber, related to other aramids such as Nomex and Technora. Developed at DuPont in 1965, this high strength material was first commercially used in the early 1970s as a replacement for steel in racing tires...
, or Aramid
Aramid
Aramid fibers are a class of heat-resistant and strong synthetic fibers. They are used in aerospace and military applications, for ballistic rated body armor fabric and ballistic composites, in bicycle tires, and as an asbestos substitute. The name is a portmanteau of "aromatic polyamide"...
is another technique in use to increase the stiffness of slalom boats.
Recently, the minimum length of these boats were reduced from 4 meters down to 3.5 meters, causing a flurry of new, faster boat designs which are able to navigate courses with more speed and precision. The shorter length also allows for easier navigation and less boat damage in the smaller man made river beds that are prevalent in current elite competitions.
Boat design progression is rather limited year to year. Designs tend to focus on providing optimal performance for upcoming critical race venues. Olympic years tend to generate boat designs with specific performance characteristics tuned for the upcoming Olympic course.
Slalom boats used in competition must meet the ICF specifications for the class. Directly from the 2005 ICF Slalom rules:
- 7.1.1 Measurements
- All types of K1 Minimum length 3.50 m minimum width 0.60 m
- All types of C1 Minimum length 3.50 m minimum width 0.65 m
- All types of C2 Minimum length 4.10 m minimum width 0.75 m
- All types of K1 Minimum length 3.50 m minimum width 0.60 m
- 7.1.2 Minimum Weight of Boats
- (The minimum weight of the boat is determined when the boat is dry)
- All types of K1 9 kg.
- All types of C1 10 kg.
- All types of C2 15 kg.
- (The minimum weight of the boat is determined when the boat is dry)
- 7.1.3 All boats must have a minimum radius at each end of 2 cm horizontally and 1 cm vertically.
- 7.1.4 Rudders are prohibited on all boats
- 7.1.5 Boats must be designed to, and remain within, the required dimensions.
- 7.1.6 Kayaks are decked boats, which must be propelled by double bladed paddles and inside which the competitors sit. Canadian canoes are decked boats that must be propelled by single-bladed paddles and inside which the competitors kneel.
There are rules governing almost every aspect of slalom equipment used in major competition, including sponsor advertisement. Some of these rules vary from country to country, consult your national canoe and kayak governing body for direct rules.
It is common for boat manufacturers to build elite competition quality boats lighter than the required ICF weight, thus competitors affix weight to the inside of the boat at the center point. This practice allows the boat to be more responsive to directional adjustments.
Notable Slalom Boat Manufacturers:
Double Dutch - http://www.dutchcomposites.com/home/
Caiman - http://www.caiman.cz
Vajda - http://www.vajdamr.sk
Galasport - http://www.galasport.com
iTomco - http://itomco.wordpress.com/
Nomad - http://www.nomadcanoes.co.uk
Courses
Slalom courses are usually on Class II - IVInternational Scale of River Difficulty
The International Scale of River Difficulty is a standardized scale used to rate the safety of a stretch of river, or a single rapid. The grade reflects the technical difficulty and skill level required associated with the section of river...
whitewater
Whitewater
Whitewater is formed in a rapid, when a river's gradient increases enough to disturb its laminar flow and create turbulence, i.e. form a bubbly, or aerated and unstable current; the frothy water appears white...
. Some courses are technical, containing many rocks. Others are on stretches containing fewer rocks and larger waves and holes.
Slalom canoeing made its Olympic debut in 1972 in Augsburg, W. Germany. It was not seen again until 1992 in Seu d'Urgell as part of the Barcelona games. Since then, slalom paddling has been a regular at the Olympics.
List of Olympic locations:
- 1972: AugsburgEiskanalThe Eiskanal is an artificial canal feature in the city of Augsburg, Germany that was constructed as the canoe slalom venue for the 1972 Summer Olympics that were hosted in Munich....
, W. Germany - 1992: La Seu d'UrgellParc Olímpic del SegreParc Olímpic del Segre is a canoeing and kayaking facility in La Seu d'Urgell, Catalonia, Spain, built in 1990 for use during the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona....
, Spain - 1996: Ocoee RiverOcoee Whitewater CenterThe Ocoee Whitewater Center, near Ducktown, Tennessee, United States, was the canoe slalom venue for the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta. The Olympic race course was built in the dry riverbed of the Upper Ocoee river. The Upper Ocoee is the section between Ocoee Dam #3 and its downstream...
, U.S.A. - 2000: PenrithPenrith Whitewater StadiumThe Penrith Whitewater Stadium is located near Sydney, Australia. It is an artificial whitewater sporting facility which hosted the canoe/kayak slalom events at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney. The facility is part of the Penrith Lakes Scheme, which is converting open-pit sand and gravel mines...
, Australia - 2004: AthensHelliniko Olympic Canoe/Kayak Slalom CentreThe Helliniko Olympic Canoe/Kayak Slalom Centre is located in the Helliniko Olympic Complex in Greece. The venue hosted the canoe slalom events for the 2004 Summer Olympics. It consists of a competition course, a secondary training course, and a warm-up lake of natural form that occupies a total...
, Greece - 2008: ShunyiShunyi Olympic Rowing-Canoeing ParkThe Shunyi Olympic Rowing-Canoeing Park is the new, purpose-built venue for the rowing, canoeing and 10 km open-water swimming events in the 2008 Summer Olympics. It is located in Mapo Village in the Shunyi District in Beijing....
, China - 2012: Lee Valley, England
- 2016: Rio de JaneiroOlympic Whitewater StadiumThe Olympic Whitewater Stadium is a canoeing venue to be constructed in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It will host the canoe slalom events for the 2016 Summer Olympics.-Reference:* Volume 2. p. 18....
, Brazil
The 1972 Olympics in Augsburg were held on an artificial whitewater
Artificial whitewater
An artificial whitewater course is a site for whitewater canoeing, whitewater kayaking, whitewater racing, whitewater rafting, playboating and slalom canoeing with artificially generated rapids.-Flow diversion:...
course. The Augsburg Eiskanal
Eiskanal
The Eiskanal is an artificial canal feature in the city of Augsburg, Germany that was constructed as the canoe slalom venue for the 1972 Summer Olympics that were hosted in Munich....
set the stage for the future of artificial course creation. With the exception of the altered river bed of the Ocoee River in 1996, every Olympic venue has been a man-made concrete channel. Since the late 80s, artificial course creation has surged; now most countries that field Olympic slalom teams have more than one artificial course to train on. Artificial river creation has evolved and new courses have fewer issues than the some of the initial designs. Artificial rivers / creeks offer a controlled environment that offers a more consistent field of play for slalom racers and better viewing for spectators. However, natural river courses are still utilized in many national and international slalom races throughout the world.
See also
- Canoe Slalom World CupCanoe Slalom World CupThe ICF Canoe Slalom World Cup has been held since 1988 in four canoe and kayak disciplines for men and women. The four original disciplines are men's single canoe , men's double canoe , men's kayak and women's kayak...
- ICF Canoe Slalom World ChampionshipsICF Canoe Slalom World ChampionshipsThe ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships are an international event in canoeing organized by the International Canoe Federation. The World Championships have taken place every year in non-Summer Olympic years since 2002. From 1949 to 1999, they had taken place in odd-numbered years...
- Canoeing and kayaking at the Summer Olympics