Southern Ming Dynasty
Encyclopedia
The Southern Ming Dynasty was the Ming loyalist regime that continued in Southern China from 1644 to 1662 following the capture of Beijing
by rebel armies and the death of the last Ming emperor in 1644.
On April 24, 1644, Li Zicheng's rebel soldiers, of the recently proclaimed Great Shun dynasty
, breached the walls of Beijing. The Chongzhen Emperor
committed suicide the next day to avoid humiliation at their hands. Remnants of the Ming imperial family and some court ministers then sought refuge in the southern part of China and regrouped around Nanjing
, the Ming auxiliary capital, south of the Yangtze River
. Four different power groups emerged:
's suicide was met with consternation when it reached Nanjing
in mid May 1644. The highest officials in Nanjing soon met to deliberate about how to face the crisis. Since the fate of the official heir apparent was still unknown at the time, many thought it was too early to proclaim a new emperor, but most agreed that an imperial figure was necessary to rally loyalist support for the Ming in the south. In early June 1644, the court decided that the caretaker government would be centered around Zhu Yousong, Prince of Fu, who was next in line for succession after the dead emperor's sons. When he arrived in the vicinity of Nanjing (he had come from his princedom in Henan
), the Prince could count on the military and political support of Ma Shiying (馬士英) and Shi Kefa
. On June 5 the Prince entered the city, the next day he accepted the title of "Protector of the State" (監國, sometimes translated as "Regent"), and on June 7 he moved into the imperial palace, where he received the insignia of his new office. Prodded by some court officials, the Prince of Fu immediately started to consider becoming Emperor. Fearing confrontation with Ma Shiying and other supporters of the Prince, Shi Kefa convinced reluctant members of the court to accept the enthronement. The Prince of Fu was officially crowned
as Emperor on June 19, 1644, under the protection of Ma Shiying, who had arrived in Nanjing two days earlier with a large war fleet. It was decided that the next lunar year would be the first year of the Hongguang (弘光) reign.
.
Because Ma Shiying was the main supporter of the current emperor, he started to monopolise the royal court's administration by reviving the functions of the remaining eunuchs. This resulted in rampant corruptions and illegal dealings. Moreover, Ma engaged in intense political bickering with Shi Kefa
, who had been a staunch follower of the Donglin movement
.
In 1645, Zuo Liangyu (左良玉) (a former warlord who now served as governor of Wuchang for the Hongguang regime) sent his troops towards Nanjing
with the purpose of "clearing corrupt officials from the emperor's court." Seeing that this threat targeted him, Ma Shiying declared: "I and the emperor would rather die at the hand of the Great Qing, we will not die at the hand of Zuo Liangyu." By then, the Qing army had begun to move southwards: it had occupied Xuzhou
and was preparing to cross the Huai River
. Ma Shiying nonetheless ordered Shi Kefa
to direct his riverine troops (which were positioned to counter the incoming Qing attack) against Zuo Liangyu.
This displacement of troops facilitated the Qing capture of Yangzhou (which led to the Yangzhou massacre
) and the death of Shi Kefa in May 1645, and led almost directly to the annihilation of the Hongguang regime. After the Qing armies crossed the Yangtze River
near Zhenjiang
on June 1, the Hongguang Emperor fled Nanjing. Qing armies led by the Manchu prince Dodo
immediately moved toward Nanjing, which surrendered without a fight on June 8, 1645. A detachment of Qing soldiers then captured the fleeing emperor on June 15, and he was brought back to Nanjing on June 18. The fallen Hongguang emperor was later transported to Beijing, where he died the following year.
The History of the Ming, written under Qing sponsorship in the eighteenth century, blamed Ma Shiying's lack of foresight, his hunger for power and money, and his thirst for private revenge for the fall of the Hongguang court.
, was pardoned and restored to his princely title by the Hongguang Emperor. When Nanjing fell in June 1645, he was in Suzhou en route to his new fiefdom in Guangxi
. When Hangzhou fell on July 6, he retreated up the Qiantang River
and proceeded to Fujian from a land route that went through northeastern Jiangxi and mountainous areas in norther Fujian. Protected by general Zheng Hongkui, on July 10 he proclaimed his intention to become regent of the Ming dynasty, a title that he formally received on July 29, a few days after reaching Fuzhou
. He was enthroned as emperor on August 18, 1645.
In Fuzhou, the Longwu Emperor was under the protection of Zheng Zhilong
, a seatrader with exceptional organizational skills who had surrendered to the Ming in 1628 and recently been made an earl by the Hongguang emperor. The Longwu emperor, who was childless, adopted Zheng Zhilong's eldest son, granted him the imperial surname, and gave him a new personal name: Chenggong. The name Koxinga
by which this adopted son is still known to Westerners was a distortion of his title "Lord of the Imperial Surname" (Guoxingye 國姓爺).
Most Nanjing officials had surrendered to the Qing, but some followed the Prince of Tang in his flight to Fuzhou.
(Zheng Chenggong), son of Zheng Zhilong
, was awarded with the titles: Wei Yuan Hou (威远候), Zhang Guo Gong (漳国公), and Yan Ping Wang (延平王) by the Yongli Emperor of the Southern Ming Dynasty.
On the eleven year of Yongli, various anti-Qing
military commanders gathered in Fujian
to select a northern expedition target. Koxinga chose Nanjing
, which was emperor Hongwu's choice of a state capital, which would naturally have a large anti-Qing population. Nanjing
was also an important strategic location. On the fifth month and the twelve year of Yongli, Konxinga led an army of 100,000 soldiers and 290 warships to attack Nanjing
, leaving a small military force for the defence of Xiamen
Koxinga's military force went through Zhejiang
, Pingyang
, Ruian
, Wenzhou
, and Zhousan, joining forces with another military commander Zhang Huanyan . On the ninth day of the eight month, near Yangsan
Island a hurricane caused massive damage to the fleet, resulting in the loss of 8,000 personnel, sinking of 40 warships, and various degree of damage to all the ships. Koxinga called a temporary halt to the military advance and ordered repairs and refurbishing of the fleet, waiting for the right moment to attack. The Manchu Qing Governor called for the strengthening of its defence surrounding Chongmin Island, Mount Fu, Quanzhou, and Zhengjiang by laying a long iron chain across the river, and building wooden rafts stationed with soldiers and cannons. Koxinga ordered soldiers to cut the iron chain by axes, and to set fire to the enemy's wooden rafts. When Koxinga joined forces with Zhang Huanyan at the Yangtze River
, the defending forces' resistance was minimal and soon Nanjing
was encroached.
However, he had fallen into the Manchu's trap and ambush, a number of his generals perished on the battlefield. After suffering a humiliating defeat at Nanjing, Koxinga eventually decided to retreat back to Xiamen
. Chinese historians concluded that the battle of Nanjing was of the utmost importance in the life of Koxinga, since it dealt a fatal blow to his grand anti-Qing
ambitions.
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
by rebel armies and the death of the last Ming emperor in 1644.
On April 24, 1644, Li Zicheng's rebel soldiers, of the recently proclaimed Great Shun dynasty
Shun Dynasty
The Shun Dynasty was an imperial dynasty created in the brief lapse from Ming to Qing rule in China. The dynasty was founded in Xi'an on 8 February 1644, the first day of the lunar year, by Li Zicheng, the leader of a large peasant rebellion. Li, however, only went by the title of King, not Emperor...
, breached the walls of Beijing. The Chongzhen Emperor
Chongzhen Emperor
The Chongzhen Emperor was the 16th and last emperor of the Ming Dynasty in China. He reigned from 1627 to 1644, under an era name that means "honorable and auspicious".- Early years :...
committed suicide the next day to avoid humiliation at their hands. Remnants of the Ming imperial family and some court ministers then sought refuge in the southern part of China and regrouped around Nanjing
Nanjing
' is the capital of Jiangsu province in China and has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having been the capital of China on several occasions...
, the Ming auxiliary capital, south of the Yangtze River
Yangtze River
The Yangtze, Yangzi or Cháng Jiāng is the longest river in Asia, and the third-longest in the world. It flows for from the glaciers on the Tibetan Plateau in Qinghai eastward across southwest, central and eastern China before emptying into the East China Sea at Shanghai. It is also one of the...
. Four different power groups emerged:
- The Shun DynastyShun DynastyThe Shun Dynasty was an imperial dynasty created in the brief lapse from Ming to Qing rule in China. The dynasty was founded in Xi'an on 8 February 1644, the first day of the lunar year, by Li Zicheng, the leader of a large peasant rebellion. Li, however, only went by the title of King, not Emperor...
, led by Li Zicheng, ruled north of the Huai riverHuai RiverThe Huai River is a major river in China. The Huai River is located about mid-way between the Yellow River and Yangtze River, the two largest rivers in China, and like them runs from west to east...
. - Zhang XianzhongZhang XianzhongZhang Xianzhong or Chang Hsien-chung , nicknamed Yellow Tiger, was a Chinese rebel leader who conquered Sichuan Province in the middle of the 17th century. Upon capturing it, he declared himself emperor of the Daxi Dynasty .According to Chinese chronicles, many scholars rejected that claim, so he...
's Great West (Ch:大西) regime controlled SichuanSichuan' , known formerly in the West by its postal map spellings of Szechwan or Szechuan is a province in Southwest China with its capital in Chengdu...
province. - The Manchu-founded Qing DynastyQing DynastyThe Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
controlled the north-east area beyond Shanhai PassShanhai PassShanhai Pass , or Shanhaiguan, along with Jiayu Pass and Juyong Pass, is one of the major passes of the Great Wall of China It is located in Shanhaiguan District, Qinhuangdao, Hebei. In 1961, Shanhaiguan became a site of China First Class National Cultural Site.It is a popular tourist destination,...
, as well as many of the Mongol tribes. - The remnants of the Ming Dynasty could only survive south of the Huai riverHuai RiverThe Huai River is a major river in China. The Huai River is located about mid-way between the Yellow River and Yangtze River, the two largest rivers in China, and like them runs from west to east...
.
The Prince of Fu and the Hongguang reign
Enthronement
The news of the Chongzhen EmperorChongzhen Emperor
The Chongzhen Emperor was the 16th and last emperor of the Ming Dynasty in China. He reigned from 1627 to 1644, under an era name that means "honorable and auspicious".- Early years :...
's suicide was met with consternation when it reached Nanjing
Nanjing
' is the capital of Jiangsu province in China and has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having been the capital of China on several occasions...
in mid May 1644. The highest officials in Nanjing soon met to deliberate about how to face the crisis. Since the fate of the official heir apparent was still unknown at the time, many thought it was too early to proclaim a new emperor, but most agreed that an imperial figure was necessary to rally loyalist support for the Ming in the south. In early June 1644, the court decided that the caretaker government would be centered around Zhu Yousong, Prince of Fu, who was next in line for succession after the dead emperor's sons. When he arrived in the vicinity of Nanjing (he had come from his princedom in Henan
Henan
Henan , is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "豫" , named after Yuzhou , a Han Dynasty state that included parts of Henan...
), the Prince could count on the military and political support of Ma Shiying (馬士英) and Shi Kefa
Shi Kefa
Shi Kefa , style names Xianzhi and Daolin , was a government official and calligrapher of the late Ming Dynasty period of Chinese history. Shi Kefa was born in Xiangfu and claimed ancestry from Daxing County, Shuntianfu . He was mentored by Zuo Guangdou...
. On June 5 the Prince entered the city, the next day he accepted the title of "Protector of the State" (監國, sometimes translated as "Regent"), and on June 7 he moved into the imperial palace, where he received the insignia of his new office. Prodded by some court officials, the Prince of Fu immediately started to consider becoming Emperor. Fearing confrontation with Ma Shiying and other supporters of the Prince, Shi Kefa convinced reluctant members of the court to accept the enthronement. The Prince of Fu was officially crowned
Coronation
A coronation is a ceremony marking the formal investiture of a monarch and/or their consort with regal power, usually involving the placement of a crown upon their head and the presentation of other items of regalia...
as Emperor on June 19, 1644, under the protection of Ma Shiying, who had arrived in Nanjing two days earlier with a large war fleet. It was decided that the next lunar year would be the first year of the Hongguang (弘光) reign.
Internal conflicts and final demise
The Hongguang court proclaimed that its goal was "to ally with the Tartars to pacify the bandits" (聯虜平寇), that is, to seek cooperation with Qing military forces in order to annihilate rebel peasant militia led by Li Zicheng and Zhang XianzhongZhang Xianzhong
Zhang Xianzhong or Chang Hsien-chung , nicknamed Yellow Tiger, was a Chinese rebel leader who conquered Sichuan Province in the middle of the 17th century. Upon capturing it, he declared himself emperor of the Daxi Dynasty .According to Chinese chronicles, many scholars rejected that claim, so he...
.
Because Ma Shiying was the main supporter of the current emperor, he started to monopolise the royal court's administration by reviving the functions of the remaining eunuchs. This resulted in rampant corruptions and illegal dealings. Moreover, Ma engaged in intense political bickering with Shi Kefa
Shi Kefa
Shi Kefa , style names Xianzhi and Daolin , was a government official and calligrapher of the late Ming Dynasty period of Chinese history. Shi Kefa was born in Xiangfu and claimed ancestry from Daxing County, Shuntianfu . He was mentored by Zuo Guangdou...
, who had been a staunch follower of the Donglin movement
Donglin movement
The Donglin movement was an ideological and philosophical movement of the late Ming and early Qing dynasties of China.The movement was established in 1604, during the Wanli era, when Gu Xiancheng , a Ming Grand Secretary, and Gao Panlong , a scholar, restored the Donglin Academy in Wuxi with the...
.
In 1645, Zuo Liangyu (左良玉) (a former warlord who now served as governor of Wuchang for the Hongguang regime) sent his troops towards Nanjing
Nanjing
' is the capital of Jiangsu province in China and has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having been the capital of China on several occasions...
with the purpose of "clearing corrupt officials from the emperor's court." Seeing that this threat targeted him, Ma Shiying declared: "I and the emperor would rather die at the hand of the Great Qing, we will not die at the hand of Zuo Liangyu." By then, the Qing army had begun to move southwards: it had occupied Xuzhou
Xuzhou
Xuzhou , otherwise known as Pengcheng in ancient times, is a major city in and the fourth largest prefecture-level city of Jiangsu province, People's Republic of China...
and was preparing to cross the Huai River
Huai River
The Huai River is a major river in China. The Huai River is located about mid-way between the Yellow River and Yangtze River, the two largest rivers in China, and like them runs from west to east...
. Ma Shiying nonetheless ordered Shi Kefa
Shi Kefa
Shi Kefa , style names Xianzhi and Daolin , was a government official and calligrapher of the late Ming Dynasty period of Chinese history. Shi Kefa was born in Xiangfu and claimed ancestry from Daxing County, Shuntianfu . He was mentored by Zuo Guangdou...
to direct his riverine troops (which were positioned to counter the incoming Qing attack) against Zuo Liangyu.
This displacement of troops facilitated the Qing capture of Yangzhou (which led to the Yangzhou massacre
Yangzhou massacre
The Yangzhou massacre took place in 1645 in Yangzhou, China, during the Qing Dynasty. Mass killings of residents in Yangzhou were conducted by Qing troops under the command of Prince Dodo after they conquered the city from forces loyal to the Southern Ming regime of the Hongguang Emperor.The...
) and the death of Shi Kefa in May 1645, and led almost directly to the annihilation of the Hongguang regime. After the Qing armies crossed the Yangtze River
Yangtze River
The Yangtze, Yangzi or Cháng Jiāng is the longest river in Asia, and the third-longest in the world. It flows for from the glaciers on the Tibetan Plateau in Qinghai eastward across southwest, central and eastern China before emptying into the East China Sea at Shanghai. It is also one of the...
near Zhenjiang
Zhenjiang
Zhenjiang is a prefecture-level city in the southwest of Jiangsu province in the eastern People's Republic of China . Sitting on the southern bank of the Yangtze River, it borders the provincial capital of Nanjing to the west, Changzhou to the east, and Yangzhou across the river to the north.Once...
on June 1, the Hongguang Emperor fled Nanjing. Qing armies led by the Manchu prince Dodo
Dodo (prince)
Dodo was a Manchu prince and military general of the early Qing Dynasty. His title was "Prince Yu of the First Rank" .-Family background:...
immediately moved toward Nanjing, which surrendered without a fight on June 8, 1645. A detachment of Qing soldiers then captured the fleeing emperor on June 15, and he was brought back to Nanjing on June 18. The fallen Hongguang emperor was later transported to Beijing, where he died the following year.
The History of the Ming, written under Qing sponsorship in the eighteenth century, blamed Ma Shiying's lack of foresight, his hunger for power and money, and his thirst for private revenge for the fall of the Hongguang court.
The Prince of Tang and the Longwu reign
In 1644, Zhu Yujian, a ninth-generation of Zhu Yuanzhang who had been put under house arrest in 1636 under the Chongzhen EmperorChongzhen Emperor
The Chongzhen Emperor was the 16th and last emperor of the Ming Dynasty in China. He reigned from 1627 to 1644, under an era name that means "honorable and auspicious".- Early years :...
, was pardoned and restored to his princely title by the Hongguang Emperor. When Nanjing fell in June 1645, he was in Suzhou en route to his new fiefdom in Guangxi
Guangxi
Guangxi, formerly romanized Kwangsi, is a province of southern China along its border with Vietnam. In 1958, it became the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China, a region with special privileges created specifically for the Zhuang people.Guangxi's location, in...
. When Hangzhou fell on July 6, he retreated up the Qiantang River
Qiantang River
The Qiantang River is a southeast Chinese river that originates in the borders of Anhui and Jiangxi provinces and passes through Hangzhou, the capital of Zhejiang province, before flowing into the East China Sea through Hangzhou Bay....
and proceeded to Fujian from a land route that went through northeastern Jiangxi and mountainous areas in norther Fujian. Protected by general Zheng Hongkui, on July 10 he proclaimed his intention to become regent of the Ming dynasty, a title that he formally received on July 29, a few days after reaching Fuzhou
Fuzhou
Fuzhou is the capital and one of the largest cities in Fujian Province, People's Republic of China. Along with the many counties of Ningde, those of Fuzhou are considered to constitute the Mindong linguistic and cultural area....
. He was enthroned as emperor on August 18, 1645.
In Fuzhou, the Longwu Emperor was under the protection of Zheng Zhilong
Zheng Zhilong
Zheng Zhilong also known as Nicholas Iquan Gaspard, a native of Nan'an, Fujian, China. He was a Chinese merchant, pirate and admiral for the Ming Empire. He was the father of Zheng Chenggong , also a military leader. Under the Qing Dynasty, Zheng was elevated to the rank of Count of the Second Rank...
, a seatrader with exceptional organizational skills who had surrendered to the Ming in 1628 and recently been made an earl by the Hongguang emperor. The Longwu emperor, who was childless, adopted Zheng Zhilong's eldest son, granted him the imperial surname, and gave him a new personal name: Chenggong. The name Koxinga
Koxinga
Koxinga is the customary Western spelling of the popular appellation of Zheng Chenggong , a military leader who was born in 1624 in Hirado, Japan to Zheng Zhilong, a Chinese merchant/pirate, and his Japanese wife and died in 1662 on the island of Formosa .A Ming loyalist and the arch commander of...
by which this adopted son is still known to Westerners was a distortion of his title "Lord of the Imperial Surname" (Guoxingye 國姓爺).
Most Nanjing officials had surrendered to the Qing, but some followed the Prince of Tang in his flight to Fuzhou.
The Prince of Gui and the Yongli reign
Koxinga
KoxingaKoxinga
Koxinga is the customary Western spelling of the popular appellation of Zheng Chenggong , a military leader who was born in 1624 in Hirado, Japan to Zheng Zhilong, a Chinese merchant/pirate, and his Japanese wife and died in 1662 on the island of Formosa .A Ming loyalist and the arch commander of...
(Zheng Chenggong), son of Zheng Zhilong
Zheng Zhilong
Zheng Zhilong also known as Nicholas Iquan Gaspard, a native of Nan'an, Fujian, China. He was a Chinese merchant, pirate and admiral for the Ming Empire. He was the father of Zheng Chenggong , also a military leader. Under the Qing Dynasty, Zheng was elevated to the rank of Count of the Second Rank...
, was awarded with the titles: Wei Yuan Hou (威远候), Zhang Guo Gong (漳国公), and Yan Ping Wang (延平王) by the Yongli Emperor of the Southern Ming Dynasty.
On the eleven year of Yongli, various anti-Qing
Anti-Qing sentiment
thumb|[[Sun Yat-sen]], one of the leaders of the [[Xinhai Revolution]] which overthrew the Qing dynasty in 1912. Photo taken in 1907Anti-Qing sentiment refers to a sentiment principally held in China against the Manchu ruling during Qing Dynasty , which was often resented for being foreign and...
military commanders gathered in Fujian
Fujian
' , formerly romanised as Fukien or Huguing or Foukien, is a province on the southeast coast of mainland China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, and Guangdong to the south. Taiwan lies to the east, across the Taiwan Strait...
to select a northern expedition target. Koxinga chose Nanjing
Nanjing
' is the capital of Jiangsu province in China and has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having been the capital of China on several occasions...
, which was emperor Hongwu's choice of a state capital, which would naturally have a large anti-Qing population. Nanjing
Nanjing
' is the capital of Jiangsu province in China and has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having been the capital of China on several occasions...
was also an important strategic location. On the fifth month and the twelve year of Yongli, Konxinga led an army of 100,000 soldiers and 290 warships to attack Nanjing
Nanjing
' is the capital of Jiangsu province in China and has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having been the capital of China on several occasions...
, leaving a small military force for the defence of Xiamen
Xiamen
Xiamen , also known as Amoy , is a major city on the southeast coast of the People's Republic of China. It is administered as a sub-provincial city of Fujian province with an area of and population of 3.53 million...
Koxinga's military force went through Zhejiang
Zhejiang
Zhejiang is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. The word Zhejiang was the old name of the Qiantang River, which passes through Hangzhou, the provincial capital...
, Pingyang
Pingyang
Pingyang may refer to:*Linfen, formerly known as Pingyang, county-level city of Shanxi*Princess Pingyang , Chinese princess of the Tang Dynasty*Pingyang County , of Wenzhou, Zhejiang*Towns named Pingyang...
, Ruian
Ruian
Rui'an is a city on the eastern coast of China, in the south of Zhejiang province. It is a county-level city administrated by the nearby prefecture-level city of Wenzhou. It currently has a population of 1,125,000 people covering 1271 km2, 3037 km2 including sea...
, Wenzhou
Wenzhou
Wenzhou is a prefecture-level city in southeastern Zhejiang province, People's Republic of China. The area under its jurisdiction, which includes two satellite cities and six counties, had a population of 9,122,100 as of 2010....
, and Zhousan, joining forces with another military commander Zhang Huanyan . On the ninth day of the eight month, near Yangsan
Yangsan
Yangsan is a city in Gyeongsangnam-do Province, South Korea.-Administrative divisions:Currently, Yangsan is made up of 1 eup, 4 myeon, and 7 dong. There are plans, however, to create a new Ungsang-eup, which would include 4 dong.-Railways:...
Island a hurricane caused massive damage to the fleet, resulting in the loss of 8,000 personnel, sinking of 40 warships, and various degree of damage to all the ships. Koxinga called a temporary halt to the military advance and ordered repairs and refurbishing of the fleet, waiting for the right moment to attack. The Manchu Qing Governor called for the strengthening of its defence surrounding Chongmin Island, Mount Fu, Quanzhou, and Zhengjiang by laying a long iron chain across the river, and building wooden rafts stationed with soldiers and cannons. Koxinga ordered soldiers to cut the iron chain by axes, and to set fire to the enemy's wooden rafts. When Koxinga joined forces with Zhang Huanyan at the Yangtze River
Yangtze River
The Yangtze, Yangzi or Cháng Jiāng is the longest river in Asia, and the third-longest in the world. It flows for from the glaciers on the Tibetan Plateau in Qinghai eastward across southwest, central and eastern China before emptying into the East China Sea at Shanghai. It is also one of the...
, the defending forces' resistance was minimal and soon Nanjing
Nanjing
' is the capital of Jiangsu province in China and has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having been the capital of China on several occasions...
was encroached.
However, he had fallen into the Manchu's trap and ambush, a number of his generals perished on the battlefield. After suffering a humiliating defeat at Nanjing, Koxinga eventually decided to retreat back to Xiamen
Xiamen
Xiamen , also known as Amoy , is a major city on the southeast coast of the People's Republic of China. It is administered as a sub-provincial city of Fujian province with an area of and population of 3.53 million...
. Chinese historians concluded that the battle of Nanjing was of the utmost importance in the life of Koxinga, since it dealt a fatal blow to his grand anti-Qing
Anti-Qing sentiment
thumb|[[Sun Yat-sen]], one of the leaders of the [[Xinhai Revolution]] which overthrew the Qing dynasty in 1912. Photo taken in 1907Anti-Qing sentiment refers to a sentiment principally held in China against the Manchu ruling during Qing Dynasty , which was often resented for being foreign and...
ambitions.
See also
- Koxinga Ancestral ShrineKoxinga Ancestral ShrineKoxinga Ancestral Shrine is a family shrine built in Tainan City, Taiwan in 1663 by Zheng Jing, to worship his father Koxinga.When Taiwan became part of the Qing Empire, it was renamed "The Cheng's Ancestral Shrine" and today the official name is "Ancestral Shrine of Koxinga". The complex is...
- Kingdom of TungningKingdom of TungningThe Kingdom of Tungning was a government that ruled Taiwan between 1661 and 1683. A pro-Ming Dynasty state, it was founded by Koxinga after the Ming government in mainland China was replaced by the Manchu-ruled Qing Dynasty...
- History of TaiwanHistory of TaiwanTaiwan was first populated by Negrito, and then Austronesian people. It was colonized by the Dutch in the 17th century, followed by an influx of Han Chinese including Hakka immigrants from areas of Fujian and Guangdong of mainland China, across the Taiwan Strait...
- Iquan's PartyIquan's PartyIquan's Party is the name of an armed merchant company led by Zheng Zhilong that appears in the novel The chronicles of Zheng Zhilong...