Space exposure
Encyclopedia
Space exposure is the subjection of a human to the conditions of outer space
, without protective clothing and beyond the Earth’s atmosphere in a vacuum
.
, hypoxia
, hypocapnia
, decompression sickness
, extreme temperature variations and cellular mutation and destruction from high energy photons and (sub-atomic) particles.
For the effect of rapid decompression to vacuum conditions, see the main article at Uncontrolled decompression.
, the formation of bubbles in body fluids due to reduced ambient pressure, is the most severe component of the experience. Technically, ebullism is considered to begin at an elevation of around 19 kilometres (11.8 mi) or pressures less than 6.3 kPa
(47 mm Hg
), known as the Armstrong Limit
. Experiments with other animals have revealed an array of symptoms that could also apply to humans. The least severe of these is the freezing of bodily secretions due to evaporative cooling. But severe symptoms such as loss of oxygen
in tissue (anoxia
) and multiplicative increase of body volume occur within 10 seconds, followed by circulatory failure and flaccid paralysis
in about 30 seconds. The lungs
also collapse (atelectasis
) in this process, but will continue to release water vapour leading to cooling and ice formation in the respiratory tract
.
A rough estimate is that a human will have about 90 seconds to be recompressed, after which death may be unavoidable. The absence of oxygen outside the body causing rapid de-oxygenation of the blood (hypoxia
) is the primary reason for unconsciousness within 14 seconds. If a person is exposed to low pressures more slowly, hypoxia causes gradual loss of cognitive functions starting at about 3 kilometres (9,842.5 ft) altitude equivalent. Less severe effects include the formation of nitrogen
gas bubbles and consequent interference with organ function (decompression sickness
), which is less severe in space than in diving
. Meanwhile, reduction of blood carbon dioxide
levels (hypocapnia
) can alter the blood pH
and indirectly contribute to nervous system malfunctions. If the person tries to hold his breath during decompression, the lungs may rupture internally.
Few humans have experienced these four conditions. Joseph Kittinger
experienced localised ebullism during a 31 kilometres (19.3 mi) ascent in a helium
-driven gondola. His right-hand glove failed to pressurise and his hand expanded to roughly twice its normal volume accompanied by disabling pain. His hand took about 3 hours to recover after his return to the ground. Two other people were decompressed accidentally during space mission training programs on the ground, but both incidents were less than 5 minutes in duration, and both victims survived. International Space Station
and Space Shuttle
astronauts regularly work in Extravehicular Mobility Unit
s (EMUs or space suits) that are at pressures less than 30% of the spacecraft to facilitate mobility, without experiencing noticeable decompression sickness.
To date, the only humans to have died of space exposure are the three crew members of the Soyuz 11
spacecraft: Vladislav Volkov
, Georgi Dobrovolski and Viktor Patsayev
. During the re-entry on June 30, 1971, the ship's depressurization resulted in the death of the entire crew.
Decompression is a serious concern during the extra-vehicular activities
(EVAs) of astronauts. Current EMU designs take this and other issues into consideration, and have evolved over time. A key challenge has been the competing interests of increasing astronaut mobility (which is reduced by high-pressure EMU
s, analogous to the difficulty of deforming an inflated balloon relative to a deflated one) and minimising decompression risk. Investigators have considered pressurizing a separate head unit to the regular 71 kPa (10.3 psi) cabin pressure as opposed to the current whole-EMU pressure of 29.6 kPa (4.3 psi). In such a design, pressurization of the torso could be achieved mechanically, avoiding mobility reduction associated with pneumatic pressurization.
and other cellular molecules through atomic and nuclear interactions. Prolonged exposure and the ability of X and gamma photons to penetrate the entire body may cause death from organ failure, while even short-term exposure may cause cancer.
, where it usually occurs as a method of execution (or other sort of killing) by vacuum
exposure in space
- usually accomplished by ejecting the subject through the airlock
of a spacecraft
or space station
without a space suit
. Spacing is also sometime used as a means of dispatching enemies, usually by luring or herding the target(s) into an airlock, hangar or cargo bay with an exterior hatch and the flushing them out into space, or opportunistically double-opening an airlock - or even blowing out a window or hull panel - that happens to be near the target, with similar results. The primary cause of death would be asphyxia
. Many films show people exposed to vacuum in unrealistic ways.
Outer space
Outer space is the void that exists between celestial bodies, including the Earth. It is not completely empty, but consists of a hard vacuum containing a low density of particles: predominantly a plasma of hydrogen and helium, as well as electromagnetic radiation, magnetic fields, and neutrinos....
, without protective clothing and beyond the Earth’s atmosphere in a vacuum
Vacuum
In everyday usage, vacuum is a volume of space that is essentially empty of matter, such that its gaseous pressure is much less than atmospheric pressure. The word comes from the Latin term for "empty". A perfect vacuum would be one with no particles in it at all, which is impossible to achieve in...
.
Explanation and history
The key concerns for a human without protective clothing beyond Earth’s atmosphere are the following, listed roughly in the descending order of mortal significance: ebullismEbullism
Ebullism is the formation of gas bubbles in bodily fluids due to reduced environmental pressure, for example at high altitude. It occurs because a system of liquid and gas at equilibrium will see a net conversion of liquid to gas as pressure lowers, for example, liquids reach their boiling point...
, hypoxia
Hypoxia (medical)
Hypoxia, or hypoxiation, is a pathological condition in which the body as a whole or a region of the body is deprived of adequate oxygen supply. Variations in arterial oxygen concentrations can be part of the normal physiology, for example, during strenuous physical exercise...
, hypocapnia
Hypocapnia
Hypocapnia or hypocapnea also known as hypocarbia, sometimes incorrectly called acapnia, is a state of reduced carbon dioxide in the blood. Hypocapnia usually results from deep or rapid breathing, known as hyperventilation....
, decompression sickness
Decompression sickness
Decompression sickness describes a condition arising from dissolved gases coming out of solution into bubbles inside the body on depressurization...
, extreme temperature variations and cellular mutation and destruction from high energy photons and (sub-atomic) particles.
For the effect of rapid decompression to vacuum conditions, see the main article at Uncontrolled decompression.
Ebullism, hypoxia, hypocapnia and decompression sickness
EbullismEbullism
Ebullism is the formation of gas bubbles in bodily fluids due to reduced environmental pressure, for example at high altitude. It occurs because a system of liquid and gas at equilibrium will see a net conversion of liquid to gas as pressure lowers, for example, liquids reach their boiling point...
, the formation of bubbles in body fluids due to reduced ambient pressure, is the most severe component of the experience. Technically, ebullism is considered to begin at an elevation of around 19 kilometres (11.8 mi) or pressures less than 6.3 kPa
Pascal (unit)
The pascal is the SI derived unit of pressure, internal pressure, stress, Young's modulus and tensile strength, named after the French mathematician, physicist, inventor, writer, and philosopher Blaise Pascal. It is a measure of force per unit area, defined as one newton per square metre...
(47 mm Hg
Torr
The torr is a non-SI unit of pressure with the ratio of 760 to 1 standard atmosphere, chosen to be roughly equal to the fluid pressure exerted by a millimetre of mercury, i.e., a pressure of 1 torr is approximately equal to 1 mmHg...
), known as the Armstrong Limit
Armstrong Limit
The Armstrong limit, often called Armstrong's line, is the altitude that produces an atmospheric pressure so low that water boils at the normal temperature of the human body: 37 °C . It is named after Harry George Armstrong, who founded the U.S. Air Force’s Department of Space Medicine in...
. Experiments with other animals have revealed an array of symptoms that could also apply to humans. The least severe of these is the freezing of bodily secretions due to evaporative cooling. But severe symptoms such as loss of oxygen
Oxygen
Oxygen is the element with atomic number 8 and represented by the symbol O. Its name derives from the Greek roots ὀξύς and -γενής , because at the time of naming, it was mistakenly thought that all acids required oxygen in their composition...
in tissue (anoxia
Hypoxia (medical)
Hypoxia, or hypoxiation, is a pathological condition in which the body as a whole or a region of the body is deprived of adequate oxygen supply. Variations in arterial oxygen concentrations can be part of the normal physiology, for example, during strenuous physical exercise...
) and multiplicative increase of body volume occur within 10 seconds, followed by circulatory failure and flaccid paralysis
Flaccid paralysis
Flaccid paralysis is a clinical manifestation characterized by weakness or paralysis and reduced muscle tone without other obvious cause .-Polio:...
in about 30 seconds. The lungs
Human lung
The human lungs are the organs of respiration in humans. Humans have two lungs, with the left being divided into two lobes and the right into three lobes. Together, the lungs contain approximately of airways and 300 to 500 million alveoli, having a total surface area of about in...
also collapse (atelectasis
Atelectasis
Atelectasis is defined as the collapse or closure of alveoli resulting in reduced or absent gas exchange. It may affect part or all of one lung. It is a condition where the alveoli are deflated, as distinct from pulmonary consolidation.It is a very common finding in chest x-rays and other...
) in this process, but will continue to release water vapour leading to cooling and ice formation in the respiratory tract
Respiratory tract
In humans the respiratory tract is the part of the anatomy involved with the process of respiration.The respiratory tract is divided into 3 segments:*Upper respiratory tract: nose and nasal passages, paranasal sinuses, and throat or pharynx...
.
A rough estimate is that a human will have about 90 seconds to be recompressed, after which death may be unavoidable. The absence of oxygen outside the body causing rapid de-oxygenation of the blood (hypoxia
Hypoxia (medical)
Hypoxia, or hypoxiation, is a pathological condition in which the body as a whole or a region of the body is deprived of adequate oxygen supply. Variations in arterial oxygen concentrations can be part of the normal physiology, for example, during strenuous physical exercise...
) is the primary reason for unconsciousness within 14 seconds. If a person is exposed to low pressures more slowly, hypoxia causes gradual loss of cognitive functions starting at about 3 kilometres (9,842.5 ft) altitude equivalent. Less severe effects include the formation of nitrogen
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a chemical element that has the symbol N, atomic number of 7 and atomic mass 14.00674 u. Elemental nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, and mostly inert diatomic gas at standard conditions, constituting 78.08% by volume of Earth's atmosphere...
gas bubbles and consequent interference with organ function (decompression sickness
Decompression sickness
Decompression sickness describes a condition arising from dissolved gases coming out of solution into bubbles inside the body on depressurization...
), which is less severe in space than in diving
Scuba diving
Scuba diving is a form of underwater diving in which a diver uses a scuba set to breathe underwater....
. Meanwhile, reduction of blood carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom...
levels (hypocapnia
Hypocapnia
Hypocapnia or hypocapnea also known as hypocarbia, sometimes incorrectly called acapnia, is a state of reduced carbon dioxide in the blood. Hypocapnia usually results from deep or rapid breathing, known as hyperventilation....
) can alter the blood pH
PH
In chemistry, pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Pure water is said to be neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at . Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline...
and indirectly contribute to nervous system malfunctions. If the person tries to hold his breath during decompression, the lungs may rupture internally.
Few humans have experienced these four conditions. Joseph Kittinger
Joseph Kittinger
Joseph William Kittinger II is a former Command Pilot and career military officer in the United States Air Force. He is most famous for his participation in Project Manhigh and Project Excelsior, holding the records for having the highest, fastest and longest skydive, from a height greater than...
experienced localised ebullism during a 31 kilometres (19.3 mi) ascent in a helium
Helium
Helium is the chemical element with atomic number 2 and an atomic weight of 4.002602, which is represented by the symbol He. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, inert, monatomic gas that heads the noble gas group in the periodic table...
-driven gondola. His right-hand glove failed to pressurise and his hand expanded to roughly twice its normal volume accompanied by disabling pain. His hand took about 3 hours to recover after his return to the ground. Two other people were decompressed accidentally during space mission training programs on the ground, but both incidents were less than 5 minutes in duration, and both victims survived. International Space Station
International Space Station
The International Space Station is a habitable, artificial satellite in low Earth orbit. The ISS follows the Salyut, Almaz, Cosmos, Skylab, and Mir space stations, as the 11th space station launched, not including the Genesis I and II prototypes...
and Space Shuttle
Space Shuttle
The Space Shuttle was a manned orbital rocket and spacecraft system operated by NASA on 135 missions from 1981 to 2011. The system combined rocket launch, orbital spacecraft, and re-entry spaceplane with modular add-ons...
astronauts regularly work in Extravehicular Mobility Unit
Extravehicular Mobility Unit
The Space Shuttle/International Space Station Extravehicular Mobility Unit is an independent anthropomorphic system that provides environmental protection, mobility, life support, and communications for a Space Shuttle or International Space Station crew member to perform extra-vehicular activity...
s (EMUs or space suits) that are at pressures less than 30% of the spacecraft to facilitate mobility, without experiencing noticeable decompression sickness.
To date, the only humans to have died of space exposure are the three crew members of the Soyuz 11
Soyuz 11
Soyuz 11 was the first manned mission to arrive at the world's first space station, Salyut 1. The mission arrived at the space station on June 7, 1971 and departed on June 30, 1971. The mission ended in disaster when the crew capsule depressurized during preparations for re-entry, killing the...
spacecraft: Vladislav Volkov
Vladislav Volkov
Vladislav Nikolayevich Volkov was a Soviet cosmonaut who flew on the Soyuz 7 and Soyuz 11 missions. The second mission terminated fatally.-Biography:...
, Georgi Dobrovolski and Viktor Patsayev
Viktor Patsayev
Viktor Ivanovich Patsayev was a Soviet cosmonaut who flew on the Soyuz 11 mission and had the unfortunate distinction of being part of the second crew to die during a space flight...
. During the re-entry on June 30, 1971, the ship's depressurization resulted in the death of the entire crew.
Decompression is a serious concern during the extra-vehicular activities
Extra-vehicular activity
Extra-vehicular activity is work done by an astronaut away from the Earth, and outside of a spacecraft. The term most commonly applies to an EVA made outside a craft orbiting Earth , but also applies to an EVA made on the surface of the Moon...
(EVAs) of astronauts. Current EMU designs take this and other issues into consideration, and have evolved over time. A key challenge has been the competing interests of increasing astronaut mobility (which is reduced by high-pressure EMU
Extravehicular Mobility Unit
The Space Shuttle/International Space Station Extravehicular Mobility Unit is an independent anthropomorphic system that provides environmental protection, mobility, life support, and communications for a Space Shuttle or International Space Station crew member to perform extra-vehicular activity...
s, analogous to the difficulty of deforming an inflated balloon relative to a deflated one) and minimising decompression risk. Investigators have considered pressurizing a separate head unit to the regular 71 kPa (10.3 psi) cabin pressure as opposed to the current whole-EMU pressure of 29.6 kPa (4.3 psi). In such a design, pressurization of the torso could be achieved mechanically, avoiding mobility reduction associated with pneumatic pressurization.
Extreme temperature variations
Extreme temperature variations are a problem in space, because heat exchange occurs primarily via infrared radiation. While the absence of convection and conduction causes an insulating effect preventing rapid dissipation of body heat, localized heating can occur if exposed to starlight at distances comparable to the Earth-Sun distance, and radiative loss of body heat can approach 1,000 watts in a worst-case scenario, given a skin temperature of 37 degrees C, and a body surface area of 2 square meters.Cellular mutation and destruction from high energy photons and (sub-atomic) particles
A more severe long-term effect would be the direct exposure to high energy photons (ultraviolet, X-ray, and gamma) and energized subatomic particles (primarily protons). These can permanently denature DNADNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms . The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in...
and other cellular molecules through atomic and nuclear interactions. Prolonged exposure and the ability of X and gamma photons to penetrate the entire body may cause death from organ failure, while even short-term exposure may cause cancer.
In science fiction
Spacing is a staple of science fictionScience fiction
Science fiction is a genre of fiction dealing with imaginary but more or less plausible content such as future settings, futuristic science and technology, space travel, aliens, and paranormal abilities...
, where it usually occurs as a method of execution (or other sort of killing) by vacuum
Vacuum
In everyday usage, vacuum is a volume of space that is essentially empty of matter, such that its gaseous pressure is much less than atmospheric pressure. The word comes from the Latin term for "empty". A perfect vacuum would be one with no particles in it at all, which is impossible to achieve in...
exposure in space
Outer space
Outer space is the void that exists between celestial bodies, including the Earth. It is not completely empty, but consists of a hard vacuum containing a low density of particles: predominantly a plasma of hydrogen and helium, as well as electromagnetic radiation, magnetic fields, and neutrinos....
- usually accomplished by ejecting the subject through the airlock
Airlock
An airlock is a device which permits the passage of people and objects between a pressure vessel and its surroundings while minimizing the change of pressure in the vessel and loss of air from it...
of a spacecraft
Spacecraft
A spacecraft or spaceship is a craft or machine designed for spaceflight. Spacecraft are used for a variety of purposes, including communications, earth observation, meteorology, navigation, planetary exploration and transportation of humans and cargo....
or space station
Space station
A space station is a spacecraft capable of supporting a crew which is designed to remain in space for an extended period of time, and to which other spacecraft can dock. A space station is distinguished from other spacecraft used for human spaceflight by its lack of major propulsion or landing...
without a space suit
Space suit
A space suit is a garment worn to keep an astronaut alive in the harsh environment of outer space. Space suits are often worn inside spacecraft as a safety precaution in case of loss of cabin pressure, and are necessary for extra-vehicular activity , work done outside spacecraft...
. Spacing is also sometime used as a means of dispatching enemies, usually by luring or herding the target(s) into an airlock, hangar or cargo bay with an exterior hatch and the flushing them out into space, or opportunistically double-opening an airlock - or even blowing out a window or hull panel - that happens to be near the target, with similar results. The primary cause of death would be asphyxia
Asphyxia
Asphyxia or asphyxiation is a condition of severely deficient supply of oxygen to the body that arises from being unable to breathe normally. An example of asphyxia is choking. Asphyxia causes generalized hypoxia, which primarily affects the tissues and organs...
. Many films show people exposed to vacuum in unrealistic ways.
- Ellen RipleyEllen RipleyEllen Ripley is a fictional character and the main protagonist of the Alien film series played by American actress Sigourney Weaver. The character was heralded as a seminal role for challenging gender roles, particularly in the science fiction genre, and remains Weaver's most famous role to...
of the AliensAlien (franchise)The Alien film series is a science fiction horror film franchise, focusing on Lieutenant Ellen Ripley and her battle with an extraterrestrial lifeform, commonly referred to as "the Alien"...
series is a particularly adept spacer, having defeated xenomorph adversaries with at least three different forms of spacing. Two of the methods involved fully jettisoning the creature into space, with the third having it slowly (and quite graphically) pushed out through a small hole in the hull. - Movies such as OutlandOutland (film)Outland is a 1981 British science fiction thriller film written and directed by Peter Hyams.Set on Jupiter's moon Io, it has been described as a space Western, and bears thematic resemblances to High Noon....
show people exploding in a vacuum. - 2001: A Space Odyssey2001: A Space Odyssey (film)2001: A Space Odyssey is a 1968 epic science fiction film produced and directed by Stanley Kubrick, and co-written by Kubrick and Arthur C. Clarke, partially inspired by Clarke's short story The Sentinel...
, A Trip to the Moon, From the Earth to the MoonFrom the Earth to the MoonFrom the Earth to the Moon is a humorous science fantasy novel by Jules Verne and is one of the earliest entries in that genre. It tells the story of the president of a post-American Civil War gun club in Baltimore, his rival, a Philadelphia maker of armor, and a Frenchman, who build an enormous...
, and several episodes of Doctor WhoDoctor WhoDoctor Who is a British science fiction television programme produced by the BBC. The programme depicts the adventures of a time-travelling humanoid alien known as the Doctor who explores the universe in a sentient time machine called the TARDIS that flies through time and space, whose exterior...
show people surviving a vacuum with no suit on. - In Santa Claus Conquers the MartiansSanta Claus Conquers the MartiansSanta Claus Conquers the Martians is a 1964 science fiction film that regularly appears on lists of the worst films ever made. It is regularly featured in the "bottom 100" list on the Internet Movie Database, and was also featured in an episode of the 1986 syndicated series, the Canned Film...
, the MartianMartianAs an adjective, the term martian is used to describe anything pertaining to the planet Mars.However, a Martian is more usually a hypothetical or fictional native inhabitant of the planet Mars. Historically, life on Mars has often been hypothesized, although there is currently no solid evidence of...
Voldar attempts to space SantaSanta ClausSanta Claus is a folklore figure in various cultures who distributes gifts to children, normally on Christmas Eve. Each name is a variation of Saint Nicholas, but refers to Santa Claus...
and two children by trapping them in an airlock and opening the outer hatch, but they escape by climbing up a chimneyChimneyA chimney is a structure for venting hot flue gases or smoke from a boiler, stove, furnace or fireplace to the outside atmosphere. Chimneys are typically vertical, or as near as possible to vertical, to ensure that the gases flow smoothly, drawing air into the combustion in what is known as the...
-like air vent. - Battlestar GalacticaBattlestar GalacticaBattlestar Galactica is an American science fiction franchise created by Glen A. Larson. The franchise began with the Battlestar Galactica TV series in 1978, and was followed by a brief sequel TV series in 1980, a line of book adaptations, original novels, comic books, a board game, and video games...
and the film SunshineSunshine (2007 film)Sunshine is a 2007 British science fiction film directed by Danny Boyle and written by Alex Garland about the crew of a spacecraft on a dangerous mission to the Sun. In 2057, with the Earth in peril from the dying Sun, the crew is sent to reignite the Sun with a massive stellar bomb with the mass...
show some people suffering after a short exposure, and others dying plus freezing from longer exposure. - In one episode of FarscapeFarscapeFarscape is an Australian-American science fiction television series filmed in Australia and produced originally for the Nine Network. The series was conceived by Rockne S. O'Bannon and produced by Jim Henson Productions and Hallmark Entertainment...
, John Crichton leaps through space from one ship to another without a suit. His exposure only lasts several seconds and he survives without any permanent damage, but is shown to be in considerable pain afterwards. - In Total RecallTotal RecallTotal Recall is a 1990 American science fiction action film. The film stars Arnold Schwarzenegger, Rachel Ticotin, Sharon Stone, Michael Ironside, Ronny Cox & Mel Johnson, Jr.. It is based on the Philip K. Dick story “We Can Remember It for You Wholesale”...
, the character of Douglas Quaid can survive near-vacuum conditions just by holding his breath. - Several recent films, such as Mission to MarsMission to MarsMission to Mars is a 2000 science fiction film directed by Brian De Palma from an original screenplay written by Jim Thomas, John Thomas, and Graham Yost. The film's story details a fictional portrayal of a manned Mars exploration mission gone awry in the year 2020...
, show people freezing instantly in a vacuum. - In the episode Tangent, on the TV show Stargate SG1, characters are perfectly fine even after being exposed to space for about five seconds.
- "Spacing" is a common topic in Babylon 5Babylon 5Babylon 5 is an American science fiction television series created, produced and largely written by J. Michael Straczynski. The show centers on a space station named Babylon 5: a focal point for politics, diplomacy, and conflict during the years 2257–2262...
, used as a joke and referenced as a punishment for Mutiny and Treason (the only law left in earth that still permits execution). In the season 2 episode And Now For a WordAnd Now For a Word"And Now For a Word" is an episode from the second season of the science fiction television series Babylon 5. The documentary format used in this episode was later revisited for the fourth season episode "The Illusion of Truth".-Synopsis:...
Dr. Franklin describes an experience of witnessing someone die as a result of exposure to space. - Event HorizonEvent Horizon (film)Event Horizon is a 1997 science fantasy horror film. The screenplay was written by Philip Eisner and directed by Paul W. S. Anderson. The film stars Laurence Fishburne and Sam Neill...
shows it in a very graphic example. - In The Hitchhiker's Guide to the GalaxyThe Hitchhiker's Guide to the GalaxyThe Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy is a science fiction comedy series created by Douglas Adams. Originally a radio comedy broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in 1978, it was later adapted to other formats, and over several years it gradually became an international multi-media phenomenon...
, Arthur DentArthur DentArthur Philip Dent is a fictional character, the hapless protagonist and anti-hero in the comic science fiction series The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy by Douglas Adams....
and Ford PrefectFord Prefect (character)Ford Prefect is a fictional character in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy by the British author Douglas Adams. He is the only character other than the protagonist, Arthur Dent, to appear throughout the entire Hitchhiker's saga.-Name:Although Ford had taken great care to blend into Earth...
, after being found trespassing on a VogonVogonThe Vogons are a fictional alien race from the planet Vogsphere in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy series by Douglas Adams, who are responsible for the destruction of the Earth, in order to facilitate an intergalactic highway construction project. Vogons are slug-like but vaguely humanoid, are...
spacecraft, are sentenced by Prostetnic Vogon Jeltz to die in the vacuum of space (after Dent and Prefect heard a bit of Vogon poetry first). Within 30 seconds of ejection (and at an improbability ratio of 2 to the power of 276,709 to one), they were rescued by the Improbability Drive ship Heart of Gold. - In Wait It Out, a short story by Larry NivenLarry NivenLaurence van Cott Niven / ˈlæri ˈnɪvən/ is an American science fiction author. His best-known work is Ringworld , which received Hugo, Locus, Ditmar, and Nebula awards. His work is primarily hard science fiction, using big science concepts and theoretical physics...
, two astronauts are stranded on Pluto, but don't die: in those temperatures their brains becomes superconductors. - In David WeberDavid WeberDavid Mark Weber is an American science fiction and fantasy author. He was born in Cleveland, Ohio. Weber and his wife Sharon live in Greenville, South Carolina with their three children and "a passel of dogs"....
's HonorverseHonorverseThe Honorverse refers to the military science fiction book series and sub-series created by David Weber and published by Baen Books. The series is set primarily after Honor Harrington's October 1, 3961, birth; although she is the protagonist in most of the stories, more recent entries make only...
, slave traders who jettison their "cargo" into space to get rid of evidence are tried as mass murderers and sentenced to death by spacing. (In fact, if the slave ship is simply equipped for this function and is captured running empty, the slavers are automatically regarded as having done this, and treated accordingly, by the Havenite and Manticoran navies.) Captured pirates are often punished the same way. - In the movie Titan A.E.Titan A.E.Titan A.E. is an American animated post-apocalyptic science fiction film directed by Don Bluth and Gary Goldman released in 2000. The title refers to the spacecraft that is central to the plot, with A.E. meaning "After Earth."...
, Cale and Korso escape from a small space vehicle by exhaling, holding their breath, smashing out the already cracking front windshield, and floating into space just in time to be picked up by the spaceship Valkyrie. They both pass out in the landing bay. - In the video game Star Wars: The Force UnleashedStar Wars: The Force UnleashedStar Wars: The Force Unleashed is a multimedia project developed by LucasArts along with Dark Horse Comics, Lego, Hasbro, and Del Rey Books...
, Darth VaderDarth VaderDarth Vader is a central character in the Star Wars saga, appearing as one of the main antagonists in the original trilogy and as the main protagonist in the prequel trilogy....
's apprentice is thrown out of a window aboard Vader's Super Star Destroyer, and is exposed to vacuum for an undetermined period of time (measuring at least several minutes). He is retrieved by a recovery drone, and appears completely healthy six months later (however, the physics of space in Star Wars has never been explained, with questions originating from trivial matters such as the fact that fire-explosions can occur in space as well as noises being heard, though the latter is common to many sci-fi movies). It should be noted that spacing in other Star Wars media is generally lethal within minutes - and presumed fatal immediately - to non-Force-using minor characters; Force-users, on the other hand, have repeatedly been depicted as able to withstand vacuum for periods of minutes to hours, and on at least one occasion for dozens of hours in a hibernation trance. In the specific case of Vader's apprentice, it may be worth noting that there is no indication that he regains consciousness until six months after the event, suggesting that the damage caused by his exposure (in addition to other severe injuries inflicted by Vader) rendered him incapable of being safely awakened until then. - In the video game Mass Effect 2Mass Effect 2Mass Effect 2 is an action role-playing game developed by BioWare and published by Electronic Arts for Microsoft Windows, Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3. The game was released for Microsoft Windows and Xbox 360 on January 26, 2010 and for PlayStation 3 on January 18, 2011...
, Commander Shepard is thrown from the Normandy wearing a punctured suit after the vessel is attacked by a Collector Ship. Shepard is recovered by Cerberus and is brought back to life. - In the episode Ariel, of the Firefly television seriesFirefly (TV series)Firefly is an American space western television series created by writer and director Joss Whedon, under his Mutant Enemy Productions label. Whedon served as executive producer, along with Tim Minear....
, Jayne Cobb is threatened with spacing as a punishment for selling out two fugitives who were part of the crew. - In the Star Trek: EnterpriseStar Trek: EnterpriseStar Trek: Enterprise is a science fiction television series. It follows the adventures of humanity's first warp 5 starship, the Enterprise, ten years before the United Federation of Planets shown in previous Star Trek series was formed.Enterprise premiered on September 26, 2001...
episode The Augments, Captain Jonathan ArcherJonathan ArcherJonathan Archer is a fictional character in the Star Trek franchise. He is the protagonist of the television series Star Trek: Enterprise, where he is played by Scott Bakula...
is briefly exposed to outer space before being safely beamed up by the NX-01 Enterprise. - In Tom Godwin's short story The Cold EquationsThe Cold Equations"The Cold Equations" is a science fiction short story by Tom Godwin, first published in Astounding Magazine in 1954. In 1970, the Science Fiction Writers of America selected it as one of the best science fiction short stories published before 1965, and it was therefore included in The Science...
a young stowaway girl is ejected from a spacecraft whose fuel and trajectory were not calculated for the additional weight resulting in her death. The story was later adapted for an episode of The Twilight ZoneThe Cold Equations (The Twilight Zone)The Cold Equations is the fifty-first episode The Cold Equations is the fifty-first episode The Cold Equations is the fifty-first episode (the sixteenth episode of the third season (1988–1989) of the television series The New Twilight Zone.- Opening narration:-Synopsis:...
and other subsequent radio and TV shows. - In the animated feature Dead Space: DownfallDead Space: DownfallDead Space: Downfall is an animated film, a prequel to the game Dead Space and takes place during the events of Dead Space: Extraction, while the Necromorphs invade the USG Ishimura after it receives the Red Marker...
, the protagonist, Alissa Vincent opens a hatch into space to allow a homing beacon to be launched from the ship. The vacuum eventually pulls her out into space without any visible effects, despite her lack of a protective suit. - The movie SunshineSunshine (2007 film)Sunshine is a 2007 British science fiction film directed by Danny Boyle and written by Alex Garland about the crew of a spacecraft on a dangerous mission to the Sun. In 2057, with the Earth in peril from the dying Sun, the crew is sent to reignite the Sun with a massive stellar bomb with the mass...
includes a scene in which desperate astronauts must travel between two adjacent spaceships without suits. One freezes so hard that he shatters like glass. - In an episode of The SimpsonsThe SimpsonsThe Simpsons is an American animated sitcom created by Matt Groening for the Fox Broadcasting Company. The series is a satirical parody of a middle class American lifestyle epitomized by its family of the same name, which consists of Homer, Marge, Bart, Lisa and Maggie...
Treehouse of HorrorTreehouse of Horror"Treehouse of Horror" is the third episode of The Simpsons second season. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 25, 1990. The episode was inspired by 1950s horror comics, and begins with a disclaimer that it may be too scary for children. It is the first of a...
, "Life's a Glitch, Then you DieTreehouse of Horror X"Treehouse of Horror X" is the fourth episode of The Simpsons eleventh season, and the tenth annual Treehouse of Horror episode, consisting of three self-contained segments. It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on Halloween 1999. In "I Know What You Diddily-Iddily-Did", the...
", Homer and Bart space themselves to speed up an untimely death after they learn their rocket is deliberately aiming for the sun and second-rate celebrities all sing "The Trolley SongThe Trolley Song"The Trolley Song" is a song written by Hugh Martin and Ralph Blane and made famous by Judy Garland in the 1944 film Meet Me in St. Louis...
" on board. They eject from the space craft, allowing for a death by explosive decompression. This is comically shown as their heads expanding before exploding off screen with a loud pop. - In an episode of The Magic School BusThe Magic School Bus (TV series)The Magic School Bus is an American Saturday morning animated television series based on the book series of the same name by Joanna Cole. It is notable for its use of celebrity talent and combining entertainment with an educational show, according to an article in Animation World Magazine by...
entitled "Gets Lost in Space," when arguing with his cousin Janet on PlutoPlutoPluto, formal designation 134340 Pluto, is the second-most-massive known dwarf planet in the Solar System and the tenth-most-massive body observed directly orbiting the Sun...
, Arnold demonstrates what could happen if she stayed on Pluto forever, and removes his helmet, exposing him to the vacuum of space, and nearly freezes to death as a result (his head freezes over in ice as this happens). A quick-thinking Janet rescues Arnold as they return back to Earth, and all Arnold gets is a cold. This improbable event is explained in the closing segment with the show's producer, when an alien calls him and mentions that in real life you wouldn't just get a cold from taking off your helmet on Pluto, and that you would probably die. - In the movie Mission to MarsMission to MarsMission to Mars is a 2000 science fiction film directed by Brian De Palma from an original screenplay written by Jim Thomas, John Thomas, and Graham Yost. The film's story details a fictional portrayal of a manned Mars exploration mission gone awry in the year 2020...
, Tim Robbins' character is shown removing his environmental suit helmet in outer space orbiting above Mars. The effects on the human body of vacuum exposure and extreme low temperature are graphically depicted. - In the Red DwarfRed DwarfRed Dwarf is a British comedy franchise which primarily comprises eight series of a television science fiction sitcom that aired on BBC Two between 1988 and 1999 and Dave from 2009–present. It gained cult following. It was created by Rob Grant and Doug Naylor, who also wrote the first six series...
episode 'Confidence and Paranoia' Lister suffers a fever in which his hallucinations become real including 2 people that are manifestations of his confidence and paranoia. In a spacewalk his confidence is so confident that he doesn't need oxygen that he takes the helmet on his spacesuit off, causing his head to explode in the vacuum of space.
See also
- Human adaptation to spaceflight
- Uncontrolled decompression
- Proton exposure