Spread-winged Skippers
Encyclopedia
Spread-winged skippers, Pyrginae, are a subfamily of the skipper butterfly family
(Hesperiidae). The subfamily was established by Hermann Burmeister
in 1878. Their delimitation and internal systematics
has changed considerably in recent years, but as of 2009 the uncertainties surrounding the evolution
ary relationships of many genera in this subfamily are widely resolved.
It still is the second-largest subfamily of skipper butterflies, even though a considerable number of its formerly over 1,000 species is no longer placed here.
Males maintain territories and frequently perch on overhanging branches and tree trunks. They do not visit flowers for sustenance, but rather drink fluids from dung
, carrion
, and rotting fruit.
A large and successful subfamily, the spread-winged skippers are found essentially world-wide, except in very cold or desert
regions. They probably originated in the Tropics
and subsequently extended their range into more temperate
regions. Perhaps, their place of origin is western Africa
: most of the Celaenorrhini
– one of the two basalmost tribes – are found in Africa, while the Carcharodini
– the other very basal tribe – occurs throughout the tropics.
Most of the more advanced tribes, on the other hand, are very diverse in the Neotropics, which their ancestors would have found most easy to reach by crossing the central Atlantic, rather than taking the longer route via Europe
and North America
or the Pacific. It is also possible that the group originated in the Neotropics and subsequently dispersed eastwards to Africa via the Intertropical Convergence Zone
.
s of Pyrginae have almost doubled in number. However, in its old delimitation the supposed "subfamily" was not monophyletic, and the former tribe Eudamini is now recognized as a distinct subfamily Eudaminae. The Regent Skipper (Euschemon rafflesia), at one time included in the pyrgine tribe Tagiadini
, is actually the single most distinct living species of skipper butterflies, and warrants recognition in a subfamily of its own. On the other hand, the firetips
– earlier treated as a subfamily of their own – have been found to be very close relatives of the Tagiadini and are now included in the Pyrginae as tribe Pyrrhopygini.
The 7 tribes of the Pyrginae in their modern circumscription are, in phylogenetic sequence:
Family (biology)
In biological classification, family is* a taxonomic rank. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, genus, and species, with family fitting between order and genus. As for the other well-known ranks, there is the option of an immediately lower rank, indicated by the...
(Hesperiidae). The subfamily was established by Hermann Burmeister
Hermann Burmeister
Karl Hermann Konrad Burmeister was a German zoologist, entomologist, and herpetologist.Burmeister was born in Stralsund and became a professor of Zoology at the Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg from 1837 to 1861...
in 1878. Their delimitation and internal systematics
Systematics
Biological systematics is the study of the diversification of terrestrial life, both past and present, and the relationships among living things through time. Relationships are visualized as evolutionary trees...
has changed considerably in recent years, but as of 2009 the uncertainties surrounding the evolution
Evolution
Evolution is any change across successive generations in the heritable characteristics of biological populations. Evolutionary processes give rise to diversity at every level of biological organisation, including species, individual organisms and molecules such as DNA and proteins.Life on Earth...
ary relationships of many genera in this subfamily are widely resolved.
It still is the second-largest subfamily of skipper butterflies, even though a considerable number of its formerly over 1,000 species is no longer placed here.
Description and distribution
Spread-winged skippers bask with their wings held wide open. The wings are held closed when they are at rest. They are usually brown, black, or checkered, but some are brilliantly coloured. Some have long tailed hind wings.Males maintain territories and frequently perch on overhanging branches and tree trunks. They do not visit flowers for sustenance, but rather drink fluids from dung
Feces
Feces, faeces, or fæces is a waste product from an animal's digestive tract expelled through the anus or cloaca during defecation.-Etymology:...
, carrion
Carrion
Carrion refers to the carcass of a dead animal. Carrion is an important food source for large carnivores and omnivores in most ecosystems. Examples of carrion-eaters include vultures, hawks, eagles, hyenas, Virginia Opossum, Tasmanian Devils, coyotes, Komodo dragons, and burying beetles...
, and rotting fruit.
A large and successful subfamily, the spread-winged skippers are found essentially world-wide, except in very cold or desert
Desert
A desert is a landscape or region that receives an extremely low amount of precipitation, less than enough to support growth of most plants. Most deserts have an average annual precipitation of less than...
regions. They probably originated in the Tropics
Tropics
The tropics is a region of the Earth surrounding the Equator. It is limited in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the northern hemisphere at approximately N and the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern hemisphere at S; these latitudes correspond to the axial tilt of the Earth...
and subsequently extended their range into more temperate
Temperate
In geography, temperate or tepid latitudes of the globe lie between the tropics and the polar circles. The changes in these regions between summer and winter are generally relatively moderate, rather than extreme hot or cold...
regions. Perhaps, their place of origin is western Africa
Africa
Africa is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
: most of the Celaenorrhini
Celaenorrhini
The Celaenorrhini are a tribe in the skipper butterfly subfamily Pyrginae . When the Eudaminae were still included in the Pyrginae as a tribe, their delimitation versus the Celaenorrhini was disputed, and there were even suggestions that the latter might belong in the former. But in reality, these...
– one of the two basalmost tribes – are found in Africa, while the Carcharodini
Carcharodini
The Carcharodini are a tribe in the skipper butterfly subfamily Pyrginae. They are a very diverse but quite plesiomorphic and inconspicuous group distributed throughout the Tropics....
– the other very basal tribe – occurs throughout the tropics.
Most of the more advanced tribes, on the other hand, are very diverse in the Neotropics, which their ancestors would have found most easy to reach by crossing the central Atlantic, rather than taking the longer route via Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
and North America
North America
North America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...
or the Pacific. It is also possible that the group originated in the Neotropics and subsequently dispersed eastwards to Africa via the Intertropical Convergence Zone
Intertropical Convergence Zone
The Intertropical Convergence Zone , known by sailors as The Doldrums, is the area encircling the earth near the equator where winds originating in the northern and southern hemispheres come together....
.
Tribes
The formerly few tribeTribe (biology)
In biology, a tribe is a taxonomic rank between family and genus. It is sometimes subdivided into subtribes.Some examples include the tribes: Canini, Acalypheae, Hominini, Bombini, and Antidesmeae.-See also:* Biological classification* Rank...
s of Pyrginae have almost doubled in number. However, in its old delimitation the supposed "subfamily" was not monophyletic, and the former tribe Eudamini is now recognized as a distinct subfamily Eudaminae. The Regent Skipper (Euschemon rafflesia), at one time included in the pyrgine tribe Tagiadini
Tagiadini
The Tagiadini are a tribe in the skipper butterfly subfamily Pyrginae. Many of its genera were of uncertain relationships for long, and delimitation of the Tagiadini versus the Celaenorrhini was quite disputed at times. The species of this tribe are found in mostly tropical regions of Africa, Asia...
, is actually the single most distinct living species of skipper butterflies, and warrants recognition in a subfamily of its own. On the other hand, the firetips
Firetips
Firetips or firetail skippers are the tribe Pyrrhopygini of the skipper butterflies . The roughly 150 species are found only in the Neotropics, with the exception of one species which just reaches into the USA...
– earlier treated as a subfamily of their own – have been found to be very close relatives of the Tagiadini and are now included in the Pyrginae as tribe Pyrrhopygini.
The 7 tribes of the Pyrginae in their modern circumscription are, in phylogenetic sequence:
- CelaenorrhiniCelaenorrhiniThe Celaenorrhini are a tribe in the skipper butterfly subfamily Pyrginae . When the Eudaminae were still included in the Pyrginae as a tribe, their delimitation versus the Celaenorrhini was disputed, and there were even suggestions that the latter might belong in the former. But in reality, these...
- Pyrrhopygini
- TagiadiniTagiadiniThe Tagiadini are a tribe in the skipper butterfly subfamily Pyrginae. Many of its genera were of uncertain relationships for long, and delimitation of the Tagiadini versus the Celaenorrhini was quite disputed at times. The species of this tribe are found in mostly tropical regions of Africa, Asia...
- CarcharodiniCarcharodiniThe Carcharodini are a tribe in the skipper butterfly subfamily Pyrginae. They are a very diverse but quite plesiomorphic and inconspicuous group distributed throughout the Tropics....
- ErynniniErynniniThe Erynnini are a tribe in the skipper butterfly subfamily Pyrginae. They are a moderately diverse but quite plesiomorphic and inconspicuous group, and except for the Holarctic species of the type genus Erynnis occur only in the Neotropics....
- AchlyodidiniAchlyodidiniThe Achlyodidini are a tribe in the skipper butterfly subfamily Pyrginae. Many species of them are notable for their gaudy colors and the unusually-shaped wings, which look as if the forewing tips have been squarely cut off...
- PyrginiPyrginiThe Pyrgini are a tribe in the skipper butterfly subfamily Pyrginae. Formerly, when only 4 tribes of Pyrginae were recognized, the Pyrgini contained the largest number of genera among these. But this overly wide delimitation has since turned out to be paraphyletic.One of the traditional Pyrginae...
External links
- Subfamily Pyrginae from Bugguide.net
- Cirrus Digital Imaging Reference photographs: Skippers of North America