Stative verb
Encyclopedia
A stative verb is one that asserts that one of its arguments has a particular property (possibly in relation to its other arguments). Statives differ from other aspectual
classes of verbs in that they are static; that is, they have undefined duration. Verbs that are not stative are often called dynamic verb
s.
In languages where the copula is a verb, it is a stative verb, as is the case in English be. Some other English stative verbs are believe, know, seem, and have. All these in general denote states rather than actions. However, verbs like have and be, which are usually stative, can be dynamic in certain situations. Think is stative when it means "believe", but not when it means "consider". The following are not stative:
Some languages morphologically
distinguish stative and dynamic verbs, or transform one into another. Arabic
, for example, can use the same verbal root
to mean ride (stative) and mount (dynamic).
Propositions that are expressed in most Indo-European languages by noun qualifiers (such as adjective
s) are instead expressed by stative verbs in many other languages. In Japanese
, so-called i-adjectives are in fact best analyzed as intransitive
stative verbs (for example, takai alone means "is high/expensive", and samukunakatta means was not cold).
Some languages use the same verbs for dynamic and stative situations, while other use different (but often etymologically related) verbs with some kind of qualifiers to distinguish between the usages. A stative verb is often intransitive, while a corresponding one would be transitive. Compare, for example, modern English with modern Swedish.
Likewise, in Ancient Greek
, a verb whose imperfect expresses a state (e.g., ebasíleuon "I was king") may use the aorist
to express entrance into the state (e.g., ebasíleusa "I became king"). But the aorist can also simply express the state as a whole, with no focus on the beginning of the state (eíkosi étē ebasíleusa "I ruled for twenty years").
, including David Dowty
's, stative verbs have a logical
form that is the lambda expression
Apart from Dowty, Z. Vendler and C. S. Smith have also written influential work on aspectual classification of verbs.
(The phrase "Know thyself!" is imperative, but it uses the archaic "know" as a dynamic verb.)
Grammatical aspect
In linguistics, the grammatical aspect of a verb is a grammatical category that defines the temporal flow in a given action, event, or state, from the point of view of the speaker...
classes of verbs in that they are static; that is, they have undefined duration. Verbs that are not stative are often called dynamic verb
Dynamic verb
A dynamic or finitive verb is a verb that shows continued or progressive action on the part of the subject. This is the opposite of a stative verb....
s.
Examples
Examples of sentences with stative verbs:- he has always loved it.
- I am tired.
- I have two children.
- I like the color blue.
- I think they want something to eat.
- We hold these truths to be self-evidentUnited States Declaration of IndependenceThe Declaration of Independence was a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, which announced that the thirteen American colonies then at war with Great Britain regarded themselves as independent states, and no longer a part of the British Empire. John Adams put forth a...
... - The case contains six bottles.
- This would imply that we didn't care.
In languages where the copula is a verb, it is a stative verb, as is the case in English be. Some other English stative verbs are believe, know, seem, and have. All these in general denote states rather than actions. However, verbs like have and be, which are usually stative, can be dynamic in certain situations. Think is stative when it means "believe", but not when it means "consider". The following are not stative:
- You are being silly.
- She is having a baby.
- Quiet please, I am thinking.
Some languages morphologically
Morphology (linguistics)
In linguistics, morphology is the identification, analysis and description, in a language, of the structure of morphemes and other linguistic units, such as words, affixes, parts of speech, intonation/stress, or implied context...
distinguish stative and dynamic verbs, or transform one into another. Arabic
Arabic language
Arabic is a name applied to the descendants of the Classical Arabic language of the 6th century AD, used most prominently in the Quran, the Islamic Holy Book...
, for example, can use the same verbal root
Root (linguistics)
The root word is the primary lexical unit of a word, and of a word family , which carries the most significant aspects of semantic content and cannot be reduced into smaller constituents....
to mean ride (stative) and mount (dynamic).
Propositions that are expressed in most Indo-European languages by noun qualifiers (such as adjective
Adjective
In grammar, an adjective is a 'describing' word; the main syntactic role of which is to qualify a noun or noun phrase, giving more information about the object signified....
s) are instead expressed by stative verbs in many other languages. In Japanese
Japanese language
is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities. It is a member of the Japonic language family, which has a number of proposed relationships with other languages, none of which has gained wide acceptance among historical linguists .Japanese is an...
, so-called i-adjectives are in fact best analyzed as intransitive
Intransitive verb
In grammar, an intransitive verb is a verb that has no object. This differs from a transitive verb, which takes one or more objects. Both classes of verb are related to the concept of the transitivity of a verb....
stative verbs (for example, takai alone means "is high/expensive", and samukunakatta means was not cold).
Difference from dynamic
The same verb may act as stative or dynamic. An English phrase like "he plays the piano" may be either stative or dynamic, according to context.Some languages use the same verbs for dynamic and stative situations, while other use different (but often etymologically related) verbs with some kind of qualifiers to distinguish between the usages. A stative verb is often intransitive, while a corresponding one would be transitive. Compare, for example, modern English with modern Swedish.
| Swedish | English | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| dynamic/transitive | stative/intransitive | dynamic/transitive | stative/intransitive |
| lägga | ligga | lay (someone/something down) |
lie (down) |
| sätta | sitta | set, seat (someone/something) |
sit (down) |
| ställa | stå | stand (someone/something in an upright position) |
stand (up) |
| bränna | brinna | burn (someone/something) |
burn (i.e., be on fire) |
Difference from inchoative
In English, a verb that expresses a state can also express the entrance into a state. This is called inchoative aspect. The simple past is sometimes inchoative. For example, the present-tense verb in the sentence "He understands his friend" is stative, while the past-tense verb in the sentence "Suddenly he understood what she said" is inchoative, because it means "He began to understand". On the other hand, the past-tense verb in "At one time, he understood her" is stative.Likewise, in Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek is the stage of the Greek language in the periods spanning the times c. 9th–6th centuries BC, , c. 5th–4th centuries BC , and the c. 3rd century BC – 6th century AD of ancient Greece and the ancient world; being predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek...
, a verb whose imperfect expresses a state (e.g., ebasíleuon "I was king") may use the aorist
Aorist (Ancient Greek)
In the grammar of Ancient Greek, including Koine, the aorist |voices]].-Terminology:In traditional grammatical terminology, the aorist is a "tense", a section of the verb paradigm formed with the same stem across all moods...
to express entrance into the state (e.g., ebasíleusa "I became king"). But the aorist can also simply express the state as a whole, with no focus on the beginning of the state (eíkosi étē ebasíleusa "I ruled for twenty years").
Formal definitions
In some theories of formal semanticsSemantics
Semantics is the study of meaning. It focuses on the relation between signifiers, such as words, phrases, signs and symbols, and what they stand for, their denotata....
, including David Dowty
David Dowty
David Dowty is a linguist known primarily for his work in semantic and syntactic theory, and especially in Montague grammar and Categorial grammar. Dr. Dowty is a professor emeritus of linguistics at the Ohio State University.-Publications:...
's, stative verbs have a logical
Logic
In philosophy, Logic is the formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning. Logic is used in most intellectual activities, but is studied primarily in the disciplines of philosophy, mathematics, semantics, and computer science...
form that is the lambda expression
Apart from Dowty, Z. Vendler and C. S. Smith have also written influential work on aspectual classification of verbs.
Dowty's analysis
Dowty gives some tests to decide whether an English verb is stative. They are as follows:- Statives do not occur in the progressive (the * before a sentence means that it is ungrammaticalGrammarIn linguistics, grammar is the set of structural rules that govern the composition of clauses, phrases, and words in any given natural language. The term refers also to the study of such rules, and this field includes morphology, syntax, and phonology, often complemented by phonetics, semantics,...
or absurd to most native English speakers):- John is running. (non-stative)
- *John is knowing the answer.
- They cannot be complements of "force":
- I forced John to run.
- *I forced John to know the answer.
- They do not occur as imperatives.
- Run!
- *Know the answer!
(The phrase "Know thyself!" is imperative, but it uses the archaic "know" as a dynamic verb.)
- They cannot appear in the pseudo-cleft construction:
- What John did was run.
- *What John did was know the answer.