Stonehenge in its landscape
Encyclopedia
Stonehenge in its landscape: Twentieth century excavations by R. M. J. Cleal, K. E. Walker and R. Montague is an archaeological report on Stonehenge
published in 1995. It presented the results of a two year intensive study of all the known records of the various excavations at Stonehenge in the twentieth century, including a rephasing of the development of the monument.
Unlike popular books on the subject, Stonehenge in its landscape details the complex archaeological stratigraphy
of the site. It has been described as "an essential reference work for the specialist".
Public Accounts Committee. The criticisms were several: two major roads ran close to the monument, one of which cut the processional Avenue
; a large car park lay nearby; the pedestrian access to the monument was via a shabby underpass, and the visitor facilities were very limited, with no visitor centre. In addition, there was no proper plan of the monument.
The documentation of the site was in a similarly poor state. Professor Richard J. C. Atkinson
had published a partial account of the site in 1956, and this had been revised in 1979, but after nearly 90 years of archaeological investigations at the monument there was still no definitive publication presenting the complex stratigraphy
and the finds recovered from the site. In 1993 English Heritage commissioned Wessex Archaeology
to prepare such a volume. The work involved detailed study of all available site records, including plans, photographs, site notebooks, letters and other documentary sources, as well as analysis of all the finds from the site, and a new suite of radiocarbon dates
for the monument. The volume aimed to relate the site to its local landscape.
and earlier Neolithic
evidence from the site, and then moves on to describe the development of the monument, including the three major phases of development, and the post-Bronze Age
use of the site. Part 3 deals with the artefacts and ecofacts (environmental data), and Part 4 is the discussion section.
The analysis showed that Atkinson's phasing of the monument no longer held, and a new scheme was set out:
The Avenue was also constructed during Phase 3.
in London on 5 October 1995. One reviewer wryly noted:
Reviewers described the monograph as "a massive achievement", "fundamental" and "one of the more important British archaeological publications this century". The original edition had a print run of just 800 copies; the volume was reprinted in 2006.
Stonehenge
Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument located in the English county of Wiltshire, about west of Amesbury and north of Salisbury. One of the most famous sites in the world, Stonehenge is composed of a circular setting of large standing stones set within earthworks...
published in 1995. It presented the results of a two year intensive study of all the known records of the various excavations at Stonehenge in the twentieth century, including a rephasing of the development of the monument.
Unlike popular books on the subject, Stonehenge in its landscape details the complex archaeological stratigraphy
Stratification (archeology)
Stratification is a paramount and base concept in archaeology, especially in the course of excavation. It is largely based on the Law of Superposition...
of the site. It has been described as "an essential reference work for the specialist".
Origins
In 1993, both the setting and the presentation of Stonehenge was described as "a national disgrace" by the House of CommonsBritish House of Commons
The House of Commons is the lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which also comprises the Sovereign and the House of Lords . Both Commons and Lords meet in the Palace of Westminster. The Commons is a democratically elected body, consisting of 650 members , who are known as Members...
Public Accounts Committee. The criticisms were several: two major roads ran close to the monument, one of which cut the processional Avenue
Avenue (archaeology)
British Archaeologists refine the general archaeological use of avenue to denote a long, parallel-sided strip of land, measuring up to about 30m in width, open at either end and with edges marked by stone or timber alignments and/or a low earth bank and ditch...
; a large car park lay nearby; the pedestrian access to the monument was via a shabby underpass, and the visitor facilities were very limited, with no visitor centre. In addition, there was no proper plan of the monument.
The documentation of the site was in a similarly poor state. Professor Richard J. C. Atkinson
Richard J. C. Atkinson
Richard John Copland Atkinson CBE was a British prehistorian and archaeologist.-Biography:He was born in Evershot, Dorset and went to Sherborne School and then Magdalen College, Oxford, reading PPE...
had published a partial account of the site in 1956, and this had been revised in 1979, but after nearly 90 years of archaeological investigations at the monument there was still no definitive publication presenting the complex stratigraphy
Stratification (archeology)
Stratification is a paramount and base concept in archaeology, especially in the course of excavation. It is largely based on the Law of Superposition...
and the finds recovered from the site. In 1993 English Heritage commissioned Wessex Archaeology
Wessex Archaeology
Wessex Archaeology is one of the largest private archaeological organisations operating in the United Kingdom, based near Salisbury in Wiltshire.-Background:...
to prepare such a volume. The work involved detailed study of all available site records, including plans, photographs, site notebooks, letters and other documentary sources, as well as analysis of all the finds from the site, and a new suite of radiocarbon dates
Radiocarbon dating
Radiocarbon dating is a radiometric dating method that uses the naturally occurring radioisotope carbon-14 to estimate the age of carbon-bearing materials up to about 58,000 to 62,000 years. Raw, i.e. uncalibrated, radiocarbon ages are usually reported in radiocarbon years "Before Present" ,...
for the monument. The volume aimed to relate the site to its local landscape.
Contents
The volume is split into four parts. Part 1 deals with the geography and history of Stonehenge, including previous work at the site, and the site in its modern setting. Part 2, entitled Stonehenge, the monument in its setting tackles the MesolithicMesolithic
The Mesolithic is an archaeological concept used to refer to certain groups of archaeological cultures defined as falling between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic....
and earlier Neolithic
Neolithic
The Neolithic Age, Era, or Period, or New Stone Age, was a period in the development of human technology, beginning about 9500 BC in some parts of the Middle East, and later in other parts of the world. It is traditionally considered as the last part of the Stone Age...
evidence from the site, and then moves on to describe the development of the monument, including the three major phases of development, and the post-Bronze Age
Bronze Age
The Bronze Age is a period characterized by the use of copper and its alloy bronze as the chief hard materials in the manufacture of some implements and weapons. Chronologically, it stands between the Stone Age and Iron Age...
use of the site. Part 3 deals with the artefacts and ecofacts (environmental data), and Part 4 is the discussion section.
The analysis showed that Atkinson's phasing of the monument no longer held, and a new scheme was set out:
- Phase 1, c.2950-2900 BC
- Construction of ditch, inner bank, outer counterscarp bank
- Construction of Aubrey HolesAubrey holesThe Aubrey holes are a ring of fifty-six Late Cretaceous Seaford Chalk pits at Stonehenge named after the seventeenth-century antiquarian John Aubrey. They date to the earliest phases of Stonehenge in the late fourth and early third millennium BC...
(interpreted as a ring of posts) - Primary fill accumulated in the ditch, and an organic layer over it
- Phase 2, c.2900-2400 BC
- Secondary ditch fill accumulated, including some deliberate backfill
- Post settings within the earthwork from the centre towards the southern entrance; also in the northeast entrance
- Towards the end of the phase, cremations put in the partially-filled Aubrey Holes and the upper ditch, and on and just inside the inner bank
- Phase 3, c.2550-1600 BC
- 3i: Bluestones set up in the Q and R Holes and then dismantled
- 3ii: Construction of the sarsen circle and the trilithons. Possibly coeval with 3iii
- 3iii: Construction of another bluestone setting which included bluestone trilithons. Possibly coeval with 3ii
- 3iv: Rearranged bluestones then set in a circle and oval
- 3v: The oval later rearranged to form a bluestone horseshoe
- 3vi: Digging of Y and Z Holes to take stones (presumed bluestones) but these were left unfilled
The Avenue was also constructed during Phase 3.
Publication
The book was launched at the Society of AntiquariesSociety of Antiquaries of London
The Society of Antiquaries of London is a learned society "charged by its Royal Charter of 1751 with 'the encouragement, advancement and furtherance of the study and knowledge of the antiquities and history of this and other countries'." It is based at Burlington House, Piccadilly, London , and is...
in London on 5 October 1995. One reviewer wryly noted:
If this book were a new car - such is its importance - it would have descended from the clouds amidst lasers, escorted by angelic supermodels. Instead, it was launched at the Society of Antiquaries with tea and biscuits. Such is the world.
Reviewers described the monograph as "a massive achievement", "fundamental" and "one of the more important British archaeological publications this century". The original edition had a print run of just 800 copies; the volume was reprinted in 2006.