Student development theories
Encyclopedia
Student development theory refers to the body of theories related to how student
s gain knowledge
in post-secondary education
environments.
— in Europe
was in loco parentis
. Schools acted on behalf of parents for the good of their students and concentrated on character development which mostly meant instilling students with traditional Christian values
through strict rules and enforced by rigid discipline
. Thus the main focus was on the development of students' character rather than on their intellect.
The first changes came in the late nineteenth and early part of the twentieth century, with the increasing growth of universities and development of the social sciences like psychology
. By mid-twentieth century, theorists such as B.F. Skinner and Carl Rogers
influenced the thinking about students and a new paradigm
developed: the student services paradigm as the name indicates stated that students should be provided with services they require in order to better gain knowledge.
Soon after, the student service paradigm started to be replaced by the student development paradigm. This paradigm was influenced by the growing body of psychological and sociological theories, reflecting the idea that students learn both in-class and out-of-class, and are influenced both by their genetics
and social environment
(see nature vs nurture dilemma).
Basic assumptions guiding the student development movement:
There are dozens of theories falling into these five families. Among the most known are:
Student
A student is a learner, or someone who attends an educational institution. In some nations, the English term is reserved for those who attend university, while a schoolchild under the age of eighteen is called a pupil in English...
s gain knowledge
Knowledge
Knowledge is a familiarity with someone or something unknown, which can include information, facts, descriptions, or skills acquired through experience or education. It can refer to the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject...
in post-secondary education
Higher education
Higher, post-secondary, tertiary, or third level education refers to the stage of learning that occurs at universities, academies, colleges, seminaries, and institutes of technology...
environments.
History
The earliest student development theory — or traditionTradition
A tradition is a ritual, belief or object passed down within a society, still maintained in the present, with origins in the past. Common examples include holidays or impractical but socially meaningful clothes , but the idea has also been applied to social norms such as greetings...
— in Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
was in loco parentis
In loco parentis
The term in loco parentis, Latin for "in the place of a parent"" refers to the legal responsibility of a person or organization to take on some of the functions and responsibilities of a parent...
. Schools acted on behalf of parents for the good of their students and concentrated on character development which mostly meant instilling students with traditional Christian values
Christian values
The term Christian values historically refers to the values found in the teachings of Jesus.The biblical teachings of Jesus include:* love of God: "You shall love the Lord your God with all of your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind" ,...
through strict rules and enforced by rigid discipline
Discipline
In its original sense, discipline is referred to systematic instruction given to disciples to train them as students in a craft or trade, or to follow a particular code of conduct or "order". Often, the phrase "to discipline" carries a negative connotation. This is because enforcement of order –...
. Thus the main focus was on the development of students' character rather than on their intellect.
The first changes came in the late nineteenth and early part of the twentieth century, with the increasing growth of universities and development of the social sciences like psychology
Psychology
Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. Its immediate goal is to understand individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society...
. By mid-twentieth century, theorists such as B.F. Skinner and Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers
Carl Ransom Rogers was an influential American psychologist and among the founders of the humanistic approach to psychology...
influenced the thinking about students and a new paradigm
Paradigm
The word paradigm has been used in science to describe distinct concepts. It comes from Greek "παράδειγμα" , "pattern, example, sample" from the verb "παραδείκνυμι" , "exhibit, represent, expose" and that from "παρά" , "beside, beyond" + "δείκνυμι" , "to show, to point out".The original Greek...
developed: the student services paradigm as the name indicates stated that students should be provided with services they require in order to better gain knowledge.
Soon after, the student service paradigm started to be replaced by the student development paradigm. This paradigm was influenced by the growing body of psychological and sociological theories, reflecting the idea that students learn both in-class and out-of-class, and are influenced both by their genetics
Genetics
Genetics , a discipline of biology, is the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms....
and social environment
Social environment
The social environment of an individual, also called social context or milieu, is the culture that s/he was educated or lives in, and the people and institutions with whom the person interacts....
(see nature vs nurture dilemma).
Basic assumptions guiding the student development movement:
- Each student is a different individual with unique needs.
- The entire environment of the student should be taken into account and used for education.
- Student has a personal responsibility for getting educated.
Theories
Student development theories generally can be divided into five categories:- Psychosocial. Psychosocial theories focus on long-term issues that tend to occur in sequence and are correlated with chronological age, concentrating on individuals progress through various 'life stages' by accomplishing certain deeds.
- Cognitive-Structural. Cognitive-structural theories address how student perceives and rationalize their experiences.
- Person-Environment. Person-environment theories address interaction between conceptualizations of the college student and the college environment, looking at behaviorBehaviorBehavior or behaviour refers to the actions and mannerisms made by organisms, systems, or artificial entities in conjunction with its environment, which includes the other systems or organisms around as well as the physical environment...
as a social function of the person and the environment. Those theories are particularly common in career planning. - Humanistic Existential. Humanistic existential theories concentrate on certain philosophical concepts about human natureHuman natureHuman nature refers to the distinguishing characteristics, including ways of thinking, feeling and acting, that humans tend to have naturally....
: freedom, responsibility, self-actualization and that education and personal growth is encouraged by self-disclosureSelf-disclosureSelf-disclosure is both the conscious and subconscious act of revealing more about oneself to others. This may include, but is not limited to, thoughts, feelings, aspirations, goals, failures, successes, fears, dreams as well as one's likes, dislikes, and favorites.Typically, a self-disclosure...
, self-acceptanceSelf-acceptanceSelf-acceptance is defined as affirmation or acceptance of self in spite of weaknesses or deficiencies.Although this term has been often understood in a common sense way, researchers have defined it formally in terms of positive and negative self-concepts...
and self-awarenessSelf-awarenessSelf-awareness is the capacity for introspection and the ability to reconcile oneself as an individual separate from the environment and other individuals...
. These theories are used extensively in counseling. - Student Development Process Models. Student development process models can be divided into abstract and practical.
There are dozens of theories falling into these five families. Among the most known are:
- Arthur W. ChickeringArthur W. ChickeringArthur W. Chickering is an educational researcher in the field of student affairs. He is known for his contribution to student development theories. Chickering formerly taught at George Mason University and Goddard College...
's theory of identity developmentChickering's theory of identity developmentChickering's Theory of Identity Development, as articulated by Arthur W. Chickering explains the process of identity development. The theory was created specifically to examine the identity development process of students in higher education, but it has been used in other areas as... - William PerryWilliam G. PerryWilliam G. Perry, Jr. was a well-known educational psychologist who studied the cognitive development of students during their college years. He was a professor of education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education and founder and longtime director of the Bureau of Study Counsel...
's Cognitive Theory of Student Development
Further reading
- Astin, A. Student involvement: a developmental theory for higher education. Journal of College Student Personnel, 25(4), 297-308, 1984.
- Creamer, Don G. (Ed.). Student Development in Higher Education: Theories, Practices and Future Directions. Cincinnati: ACPA, 1980.
- Knefelkamp, Lee, Widick, Carole and Parker, Clyde (eds.). Applying New Developmental Findings. New Directions for Student Services No. 4. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1978.
- Miller, T.K. and Winston, Jr., R.B. "Human Development and Higher Education." In T.K. Miller, R.B. Winston, Jr. and Associates. Administration and Leadership in Student Affairs: Actualizing Student Development in Higher Education. Muncie, Indiana: Accelerated Development, Inc., 1991
- Rodgers, R. F. "Student Development." In U. Delworth, G. R. Hanson, and Associates, Student Services: A Handbook for the Profession. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1989.
- Sanford, N. Self & society: social change and individual development. New York, NY: Atherton Press, 1967.
- Strange, C. "Managing College Environments: Theory and Practice." In T.K. Miller, R. B. Winston, Jr. and Associates, Administration and Leadership in Student Affairs: Actualizing Student Development in Higher Education. Muncie, Indiana: Accelerated Development, Inc., 1991.
- Strange, C. C., & Banning, J. H. (2001). Educating by design: Creating campus learning environments that work. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
- Upcraft, M. Lee and Gardner, John L. (Eds.). The Freshman Year Experience. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1989. p. 41–46.
- Upcraft, M. Lee and Moore, Leila V. "Evolving Theoretical Perspectives of Student Development." In Margaret J. Barr, M. Lee Upcraft and Associates. New Futures for Student Affairs. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1990.
- Rona F. Flippo, David C. Caverly, Handbook of College Reading and Study Strategy Research, Google Print, p.28ff Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999, ISBN 0-8058-3004-9