Sturnus
Encyclopedia
Sturnus is a genus
of starlings. As discussed below, the taxonomy
of this group is complex, and other authorities differ considerably in which species
they place in this genus, and in the species boundaries within Sturnus.
This genus has representatives across most of Eurasia
and one species, the European Starling
, has been introduced to South Africa
, North America
, Australia
and New Zealand
.
The Sturnus starlings are terrestrial species; they walk rather than hop, and have modifications to the skull and its muscles for open-bill probing. The latter adaptation has facilitated the spread of this genus from humid tropical southern Asia
to cooler regions of Europe
and Asia.
The more northerly breeding species are completely or partially migratory
, wintering in warmer regions.
Sturnus starlings nest in holes in trees or buildings. They are omnivorous
and mostly feed on the ground; they specialise in taking invertebrate
s from just below the surface. This is facilitated by the head adaptations mentioned above, which enable the birds to probe with the bill open, closing it to secure prey items.
The plumages within this group are variable, but all the species have the starling's familiar triangular wing shape.
) and Spotless Starling
s are particularly closely related, and interbreed to some extent where their ranges overlap in southwestern France
and northeastern Spain
. The non-migratory Spotless Starling may be descended from a population of ancestral S. vulgaris that survived in an Iberian
refugium during an ice age
retreat.
The other species have been placed in this, closely related, or their own genera in the past. As delimited here, the genus Sturnus is an evolutionary grade
and not a monophyletic group (Zuccon et al. 2006). It appears as if Acridotheres
, Leucopsar, and possibly others would have to be included here to make the present genus a truly evolutionary group (Jønsson & Fjeldså 2006). However, this would create an even more diverse and less informative assemblage, so it is probably more advisable to split the genus into several, reinstating taxa such as Pastor and Temenuchus.
This has to wait for a more thorough study of all species' relationships; in the meantime, the old taxonomic sequence is preserved and suspected affiliations of the currently included species are remarked upon:
Genus
In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia...
of starlings. As discussed below, the taxonomy
Taxonomy
Taxonomy is the science of identifying and naming species, and arranging them into a classification. The field of taxonomy, sometimes referred to as "biological taxonomy", revolves around the description and use of taxonomic units, known as taxa...
of this group is complex, and other authorities differ considerably in which species
Species
In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are...
they place in this genus, and in the species boundaries within Sturnus.
This genus has representatives across most of Eurasia
Eurasia
Eurasia is a continent or supercontinent comprising the traditional continents of Europe and Asia ; covering about 52,990,000 km2 or about 10.6% of the Earth's surface located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres...
and one species, the European Starling
European Starling
The Common Starling , also known as the European Starling or just Starling, is a passerine bird in the family Sturnidae.This species of starling is native to most of temperate Europe and western Asia...
, has been introduced to South Africa
South Africa
The Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans...
, North America
North America
North America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...
, Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
and New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...
.
The Sturnus starlings are terrestrial species; they walk rather than hop, and have modifications to the skull and its muscles for open-bill probing. The latter adaptation has facilitated the spread of this genus from humid tropical southern Asia
Asia
Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area and with approximately 3.879 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population...
to cooler regions of Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
and Asia.
The more northerly breeding species are completely or partially migratory
Bird migration
Bird migration is the regular seasonal journey undertaken by many species of birds. Bird movements include those made in response to changes in food availability, habitat or weather. Sometimes, journeys are not termed "true migration" because they are irregular or in only one direction...
, wintering in warmer regions.
Sturnus starlings nest in holes in trees or buildings. They are omnivorous
Omnivore
Omnivores are species that eat both plants and animals as their primary food source...
and mostly feed on the ground; they specialise in taking invertebrate
Invertebrate
An invertebrate is an animal without a backbone. The group includes 97% of all animal species – all animals except those in the chordate subphylum Vertebrata .Invertebrates form a paraphyletic group...
s from just below the surface. This is facilitated by the head adaptations mentioned above, which enable the birds to probe with the bill open, closing it to secure prey items.
The plumages within this group are variable, but all the species have the starling's familiar triangular wing shape.
Systematics
The European (the type speciesType species
In biological nomenclature, a type species is both a concept and a practical system which is used in the classification and nomenclature of animals and plants. The value of a "type species" lies in the fact that it makes clear what is meant by a particular genus name. A type species is the species...
) and Spotless Starling
Spotless Starling
The Spotless Starling Sturnus unicolor is a passerine bird in the starling family Sturnidae. It is closely related to the Common Starling S. vulgaris, but has a much more restricted range, confined to the Iberian Peninsula, northwest Africa, southernmost France, and on the islands of Sicily,...
s are particularly closely related, and interbreed to some extent where their ranges overlap in southwestern France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
and northeastern Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
. The non-migratory Spotless Starling may be descended from a population of ancestral S. vulgaris that survived in an Iberian
Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula , sometimes called Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe and includes the modern-day sovereign states of Spain, Portugal and Andorra, as well as the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar...
refugium during an ice age
Ice age
An ice age or, more precisely, glacial age, is a generic geological period of long-term reduction in the temperature of the Earth's surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental ice sheets, polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers...
retreat.
The other species have been placed in this, closely related, or their own genera in the past. As delimited here, the genus Sturnus is an evolutionary grade
Evolutionary grade
In alpha taxonomy, a grade refers to a taxon united by a level of morphological or physiological complexity. The term was coined by British biologist Julian Huxley, to contrast with clade, a strictly phylogenetic unit.-Definition:...
and not a monophyletic group (Zuccon et al. 2006). It appears as if Acridotheres
Acridotheres
Acridotheres is a genus of starlings, the "typical" mynas, which are tropical members of the family Sturnidae. This genus has representatives in tropical southern Asia from Iran east to southern China and Indonesia. Two species have been introduced widely elsewhere...
, Leucopsar, and possibly others would have to be included here to make the present genus a truly evolutionary group (Jønsson & Fjeldså 2006). However, this would create an even more diverse and less informative assemblage, so it is probably more advisable to split the genus into several, reinstating taxa such as Pastor and Temenuchus.
This has to wait for a more thorough study of all species' relationships; in the meantime, the old taxonomic sequence is preserved and suspected affiliations of the currently included species are remarked upon:
- White-faced StarlingWhite-faced StarlingThe White-faced Starling, Sturnus albofrontatus, is a member of the starling family of birds. It is an endemic resident breeder in Sri Lanka. It was for a long time erroneously known as S...
, Sturnus albofrontatus (sometimes named S. senex) - sometimes placed in SturniaSturniaSturnia is a genus of Asian birds in the family Sturnidae. It is sometimes merged with Sturnus.-Species:The old genus placements with the starlings was found to be polyphyletic resulting in changes in the placement...
, but incertae sedisIncertae sedis, is a term used to define a taxonomic group where its broader relationships are unknown or undefined. Uncertainty at specific taxonomic levels is attributed by , , and similar terms.-Examples:*The fossil plant Paradinandra suecica could not be assigned to any... - Vinous-breasted StarlingVinous-breasted StarlingThe Vinous-breasted Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family. It is sometimes placed in the myna genus Acridotheres.-Distribution and habitat:...
, Sturnus burmannicus - sometimes separated in Gracupica or placed in Acridotheres which may be correct - Black-collared StarlingBlack-collared StarlingThe Black-collared Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is found in Brunei, Cambodia, China, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam.Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical dry forests....
, Sturnus nigricollis - sometimes separated in Gracupica which may be correct; probably close to Creatophora - Asian Pied StarlingAsian Pied StarlingThe Asian Pied Starling or Pied Myna is a species of starling found in the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia. They are usually found in small groups mainly on the plains and low foothills. They are often seen within cities and villages although they are not as bold as the Common Myna. They...
, Sturnus contra - sometimes placed in Acridotheres - Black-winged StarlingBlack-winged StarlingThe Black-winged Starling is a species of starling in the family Sturnidae. The species is also known as the Black-winged Myna or the White-breasted Starling. It is endemic to Indonesia...
, Sturnus melanopterus - sometimes placed in Acridotheres which appears to be correct - Rosy StarlingRosy StarlingThe Rosy Starling or Rose-coloured Starling is a passerine bird in the starling family Sturnidae. It is sometimes given its own, monotypic genus Pastor...
, Sturnus roseus - sometimes placed in Pastor which appears to be correct - Red-billed StarlingRed-billed StarlingThe Red-billed Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is found in China, Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, the Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam.-References:...
, Sturnus sericeus - close to White-cheeked Starling and thus probably belongs into Acridotheres or distinct genus - White-cheeked StarlingWhite-cheeked StarlingThe White-cheeked Starling or Grey Starling is a passerine bird of the starling family. It is native to eastern Asia where it is a common and well-known bird in much of its range. Usually, it is placed in the genus Sturnus, but sometimes it is united with the typical mynas in Acridotheres...
, Sturnus cineraceus - appears to be related to Acridotheres, but maybe a distinct genus located between Acridotheres and Sturnia - European StarlingEuropean StarlingThe Common Starling , also known as the European Starling or just Starling, is a passerine bird in the family Sturnidae.This species of starling is native to most of temperate Europe and western Asia...
, Sturnus vulgaris - retained in this genus - Spotless StarlingSpotless StarlingThe Spotless Starling Sturnus unicolor is a passerine bird in the starling family Sturnidae. It is closely related to the Common Starling S. vulgaris, but has a much more restricted range, confined to the Iberian Peninsula, northwest Africa, southernmost France, and on the islands of Sicily,...
, Sturnus unicolor - retained in this genus
Sources
- Feare, Chris & Craig, Adrian (1999): Starlings and Mynas. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-7136-3961-X
- Grimmett, Richard; Inskipp, Carol, Inskipp, Tim & Byers, Clive (1999): Birds of India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.. ISBN 0-691-04910-6
- Jønsson, Knud A. & Fjeldså, Jon (2006): A phylogenetic supertree of oscine passerine birds (Aves: Passeri). Zool. ScriptaZoologica ScriptaZoologica Scripta is a bi-monthly scientific journal on systematic zoology, published by Blackwell Publishing Limited, on behalf of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences...
35(2): 149–186. (HTML abstract) - Svensson, Lars; Zetterström, Dan; Mullarney, Killian & Grant, P. J. (1999): Collins bird guide. Harper & Collins, London. ISBN 0-00-219728-6
- Zuccon, Dario; Cibois, Alice; Pasquet, Eric & Ericson, Per G.P. (2006): Nuclear and mitochondrial sequence data reveal the major lineages of starlings, mynas and related taxa. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 41(2): 333-344. (HTML abstract)