Substantial form
Encyclopedia
A theory of substantial forms asserts that forms (or ideas) organize matter and make it intelligible
. Substantial forms are the source of properties, order, unity, identity, and information about objects.
The idea of substantial forms dominates ancient Greek philosophy and medieval philosophy
, but has fallen out of favour in modern philosophy.
The idea of substantial forms has been abandoned for a mechanical
, or “bottom-up” theory of organization.
regarding our knowledge of equals:
“Do they [equal things] seem to us to be equal in the same sense as what is Equal itself? Is there some
deficiency in their being such as the Equal, or is there not?
Whenever someone, on seeing something, realizes that that which he now sees
wants to be like some other reality but falls short and cannot be like that other since it is inferior,
do we agree that the one who thinks this must have prior knowledge of that to which he says it is
like, but deficiently so?
We must then possess knowledge of the
Equal before that time when we first saw the equal objects and realized that all these objects
strive to be like the Equal but are deficient in this.”
was the first to distinguish between matter
(hyle) and form (morphe). For Aristotle, matter
is the undifferentiated primal element: it is rather that from which things develop than a thing in itself. The development of particular things from this germinal matter consists in differentiation, the acquiring of particular forms of which the knowable universe consists (cf. Formal cause). The perfection of the form of a thing is its entelechy in virtue of which it attains its fullest realization of function (De anima, ii. 2). Thus the entelechy of the body
is the soul
. The origin of the differentiation process is to be sought in a prime mover, i.e. pure form entirely separate from all matter, eternal, unchangeable, operating not by its own activity but by the impulse which its own absolute existence excites in matter.
Medieval theologians, newly exposed to Aristotle's philosophy, applied hylomorphism to Christianity, such as to the transubstantiation
of the Eucharist's bread and wine to the body and blood of Jesus. Theologians such as Duns Scotus
developed Christian applications of hylomorphism.
The Aristotelian conception of form was adopted by the Scholastics, to whom, however, its origin in the observation of the physical universe was an entirely foreign idea. The most remarkable adaptation is probably that of Aquinas, who distinguished the spiritual world with its subsistent forms (formae separatae) from the material with its inherent forms which exist only in combination with matter.
concurred. Referring to substantial forms, he says:
In the Discourse on Metaphysics
(§10):
Intelligibility (philosophy)
In philosophy, intelligibility is what can be comprehended by the human mind. The intelligible method is thought thinking itself, or the human mind reflecting. Plato referred to the intelligible realm of mathematics, forms, first principles, logical deduction, and the dialectical method...
. Substantial forms are the source of properties, order, unity, identity, and information about objects.
The idea of substantial forms dominates ancient Greek philosophy and medieval philosophy
Medieval philosophy
Medieval philosophy is the philosophy in the era now known as medieval or the Middle Ages, the period roughly extending from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century AD to the Renaissance in the sixteenth century...
, but has fallen out of favour in modern philosophy.
The idea of substantial forms has been abandoned for a mechanical
Mechanism (philosophy)
Mechanism is the belief that natural wholes are like machines or artifacts, composed of parts lacking any intrinsic relationship to each other, and with their order imposed from without. Thus, the source of an apparent thing's activities is not the whole itself, but its parts or an external...
, or “bottom-up” theory of organization.
Platonic Forms
Plato maintains in the PhaedoPhaedo
Plato's Phaedo is one of the great dialogues of his middle period, along with the Republic and the Symposium. The Phaedo, which depicts the death of Socrates, is also Plato's seventh and last dialogue to detail the philosopher's final days .In the dialogue, Socrates...
regarding our knowledge of equals:
“Do they [equal things] seem to us to be equal in the same sense as what is Equal itself? Is there some
deficiency in their being such as the Equal, or is there not?
- [Simias]-A considerable deficiency.
Whenever someone, on seeing something, realizes that that which he now sees
wants to be like some other reality but falls short and cannot be like that other since it is inferior,
do we agree that the one who thinks this must have prior knowledge of that to which he says it is
like, but deficiently so?
- [Simmias] Necessarily. …
We must then possess knowledge of the
Equal before that time when we first saw the equal objects and realized that all these objects
strive to be like the Equal but are deficient in this.”
Aristotelian forms
AristotleAristotle
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology...
was the first to distinguish between matter
Matter (philosophy)
Matter is the substrate from which physical existence is derived, remaining more or less constant amid changes. anything that occupies space and has mass and weight...
(hyle) and form (morphe). For Aristotle, matter
Matter (philosophy)
Matter is the substrate from which physical existence is derived, remaining more or less constant amid changes. anything that occupies space and has mass and weight...
is the undifferentiated primal element: it is rather that from which things develop than a thing in itself. The development of particular things from this germinal matter consists in differentiation, the acquiring of particular forms of which the knowable universe consists (cf. Formal cause). The perfection of the form of a thing is its entelechy in virtue of which it attains its fullest realization of function (De anima, ii. 2). Thus the entelechy of the body
Body
With regard to living things, a body is the physical body of an individual. "Body" often is used in connection with appearance, health issues and death...
is the soul
Soul
A soul in certain spiritual, philosophical, and psychological traditions is the incorporeal essence of a person or living thing or object. Many philosophical and spiritual systems teach that humans have souls, and others teach that all living things and even inanimate objects have souls. The...
. The origin of the differentiation process is to be sought in a prime mover, i.e. pure form entirely separate from all matter, eternal, unchangeable, operating not by its own activity but by the impulse which its own absolute existence excites in matter.
Early adoption
Both Platonic and Aristotelian forms appear in medieval philosophy.Medieval theologians, newly exposed to Aristotle's philosophy, applied hylomorphism to Christianity, such as to the transubstantiation
Transubstantiation
In Roman Catholic theology, transubstantiation means the change, in the Eucharist, of the substance of wheat bread and grape wine into the substance of the Body and Blood, respectively, of Jesus, while all that is accessible to the senses remains as before.The Eastern Orthodox...
of the Eucharist's bread and wine to the body and blood of Jesus. Theologians such as Duns Scotus
Duns Scotus
Blessed John Duns Scotus, O.F.M. was one of the more important theologians and philosophers of the High Middle Ages. He was nicknamed Doctor Subtilis for his penetrating and subtle manner of thought....
developed Christian applications of hylomorphism.
The Aristotelian conception of form was adopted by the Scholastics, to whom, however, its origin in the observation of the physical universe was an entirely foreign idea. The most remarkable adaptation is probably that of Aquinas, who distinguished the spiritual world with its subsistent forms (formae separatae) from the material with its inherent forms which exist only in combination with matter.
Criticism
DescartesRené Descartes
René Descartes ; was a French philosopher and writer who spent most of his adult life in the Dutch Republic. He has been dubbed the 'Father of Modern Philosophy', and much subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings, which are studied closely to this day...
concurred. Referring to substantial forms, he says:
They were introduced by philosophers solely to account for the proper action of natural things, of which they were supposed to be the principles and bases . . . But no natural action at all can be explained by these substantial forms, since their defenders admit that they are occult, and that they do not understand them themselves. If they say that some action proceeds from a substantial form, it is as if they said it proceeds from something they do not understand; which explains nothing.
Response to criticism
Leibniz made efforts to return to forms. Substantial forms, in the strictest sense for Leibniz, are primitive active forces and are required for his metaphysics.In the Discourse on Metaphysics
Discourse on Metaphysics
The Discourse on Metaphysics is a short treatise by Gottfried Leibniz in which he develops a philosophy concerning physical substance, motion and resistance of bodies, and God's role within the universe...
(§10):
..the belief in substantial forms has a certain basis in fact, but that these forms effect no changes in the phenomena and must not be employed for the explanation of particular events.http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/dbanach/Leibniz-Discourse.htm#X