Succession to Muhammad
Encyclopedia
The Succession to Muhammad concerns the various aspects of successorship of Muhammad
after his death, comprising who might be considered as his successor to lead the Muslim
s, how that person should be elected, the conditions of legitimacy, and the role of successor. Different answers to these questions have led to emerging several divisions
in Muslim community
since the first century of Muslim history
; the most important of them are Sunni
s, Shias and Kharijites
.
From a historic viewpoint, with Muhammad's death in AD 632, disagreement broke out over who should succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar
(Umar ibn al-Khattab), a prominent companion
of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr
. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph
. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali
(Ali ibn Abi Talib), his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated his successor. None of Muhammad's sons survived into adulthood, therefore direct hereditary succession was never an option. Later, during the First Fitna
and the Second Fitna
the community divided into several sects and groups, each of which had its own idea about successorship. Finally, after the Rashidun
caliphate
turned into Monarchies
and Sultan
ates, while in most of the areas during Muslim history Sunnis have held power and Shias have emerged as their opposition.
From a religious viewpoint, Muslims later split into two groups, Sunni and Shia. Sunnis assert that even though Muhammad never appointed a successor, Abu Bakr was elected first caliph by the Muslim community. The Sunnis recognize the first four caliphs as Muhammad's rightful successors. Shias believe that Muhammad explicitly named his successor Ali at Ghadir Khumm and Muslim leadership belonged to him who had been determined by divine order.
The two groups also disagree on Ali's attitude towards Abu Bakr, and the two caliphs who succeeded him: Umar and Uthman ibn Affan. Sunnis tend to stress Ali's acceptance and support of their rule, while the Shia claim that he distanced himself from them, and that he was being kept from fulfilling the religious duty that Muhammad had appointed to him. Sunnis maintain that if Ali was the rightful successor as ordained by God
, then it would have been his duty as leader of the Muslim nation to make war with these people (Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman) until Ali established the decree. Shias contend that Ali did not fight Abu Bakr, Umar or Uthman, because he was foretold by Prophet Muhammad about how the political tide will turn against Ali after his demise and was advised not to wage war against the political oppressors. Also, he did not have the military strength nor the willingness to wage a civil war amongst the Muslims. Ali also believed that he could fulfil his role of Imamate
without this fighting .
The historical works by later Muslim writers include the traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him (the sira
and hadith
literature), which provide further information on Muhammad's life. The earliest surviving written sira (biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him) is Sirah Rasul Allah (Life of God's Messenger) by Ibn Ishaq
(d. 761 or 767 CE). Although the original work is lost, portions of it survive in the recension
s of Ibn Hisham
(d. 833 CE) and Al-Tabari
(d. 923 CE). Many, but not all, scholars accept the accuracy of these biographies, though their accuracy is unascertainable. Studies by J. Schacht and Goldziher has led scholars to distinguish between the traditions touching legal matters and the purely historical ones. According to William Montgomery Watt
, in the legal sphere it would seem that sheer invention could have very well happened. In the historical sphere however, aside from exceptional cases, the material may have been subject to "tendential shaping" rather than being made out of whole cloth.
Modern Western scholars are much less likely than Sunni Islamic scholars to trust the work of the Abbasid historians. Western historians approach the classic Islamic histories with varying degrees of circumspection.
Hadith compilations are records of the traditions or sayings of Muhammad. It might be defined as the biography of Muhammad perpetuated by the long memory of his community for their exemplification and obedience. The development of hadith is a vital element during the first three centuries of Islamic history.
There had been a common tendency among the earlier western scholars against these narrations and reports gathered in later periods; such scholars regarding them as later fabrications. Leone Caetani
considered the attribution of historical reports to `Abd Allah ibn `Abbas
and Aisha
as mostly fictitious while proffering accounts reported without isnad by the early compilers of history like Ibn Ishaq. Wilferd Madelung
has rejected the stance of indiscriminately dismissing everything not included in "early sources" and in this approach tendentious alone is no evidence for late origin. Madelung and some later historians do not reject the narrations which have been complied in later periods and try to judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures.
The only contemporary source is The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays
or Kitab al-Saqifah which is written by Sulaym ibn Qays
(death: 75-95 AH (694-714)). This is a collection of hadith and historical reports from 1st century of the Islamic calendar
and narrates the events which relate to the succession in detail.
into a single Muslim religious polity in the last years of his life, Muhammad's death in 632 signalled disagreement over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. At a gathering attended by a small group of Muslims at Saqifah
a companion of Muhammad named Abu Bakr was nominated for the leadership of the community. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. The choice of Abu Bakr disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali had been designated his successor by Muhammad himself. However Sunnis allege that Ali accepted Abu Bakr, Omar and Uthman's subsequent leadership.
Following his election to the caliphate, Abu Bakr and Umar with a few other companions headed to Fatimah's house
to obtain homage from Ali and his supporters who had gathered there. Then Umar threatened to set the house on fire unless they came out and swore allegiance with Abu Bakr. Although the event of Umar setting fire to Fatima's house is widely recorded in many Sunni and all Shi'ite histories, there is adisagreement among the sources about what happened next. Some sources say upon seeing them, Ali came out with his sword drawn but was disarmed by Umar and their companions. Shi'ite sources narrate that Umar set fire to the door of Fatima's house and then kicked the door open, crushing Fatima who was standing behind the door trying to keep the door shut. This crushing blow caused Mohsin, the son Fatima was pregnant with, to die in her womb and broke her ribs (the same blow later caused Fatima's death as well). Ali, who was under Prophet Muhammad's orders not to fight back had to be patient to avoid bloodshed and was captured in chains. When Abu Bakr's selection to the caliphate was presented as a fait accompli, Ali withheld his oaths of allegiance until after the death of Fatimah. Ali did not actively assert his own right because he did not want to throw the nascent Muslim community into strife. It is recorded by both Sunni and Shi'ite sources that Fatima remained angry at Abu Bakr and Umar for what they had done until the day she died. Fatima was buried in the night by Ali without any of Abu Bakr's supporters present and the location of her grave is still disputed.
Ali himself was firmly convinced of his legitimacy for caliphate based on his close kinship with Muhammad, his intimate association and his knowledge of Islam and his merits in serving its cause. He told Abu Bakr that his delay in pledging allegiance (bay'ah
) as caliph was based on his belief of his own prior title. Ali did not change his mind when he finally pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr and then to Umar and to Uthman but had done so for the sake of the unity of Islam, at a time when it was clear that the Muslims had turned away from him.
According to a sermon attributed by shi'as to Ali, he maintained his right to the caliphate and said:
This matter of election of Abu Bakar is still disputed in shia sect of Islam.
, elections or consultation, as the best method for making community decisions. In this view of the succession, he did not nominate a successor because he expected that the community themselves would choose the new leader — as was the custom in Arabia
at the time. Some Sunnis argue that Muhammad had indicated his reliance upon Abu Bakr as second in command in many ways; he had called upon Abu Bakr to lead prayers and to make rulings in his (Muhammad's) absence. There are some hadiths asserting that Muhammad said that some would be desirous of power but he knew that God
(and the Muslims) would make Abu Bakr the next leader (see Hadith of the succession of Abu Bakr
). Sunnis point to the fact that the majority of the people accepted Abu-Bakr as their leader as proof that his selection was wise and just.
A narration by Mousa Ibn 'Aoqbah in the book Siyar a`lam al-nubala by Al-Dhahabi
:
Shi'ites maintain that any narrations stating Ali agreed to Abu Bakr's selection are fabricated.
, Ali is his mawla". For the Shi'ites this was the clearest message by the Prophet confirming Ali would be the successor after him. It is also recorded in books from both sides that Umar ibn Khattab was the first person to congratulate Ali on becoming the successor and took allegiance at his hand among all the others present.
The word mawla has many meanings in Arabic. While the Shi'ites take the meaning 'master' or 'ruler', some Sunni scholars say that Muhammad was merely saying that anyone who was his friend should also befriend Ali. This was a response to some Yemeni soldiers who had complained about Ali. A similar incident is described in Ibn Ishaq's Sirah; there Muhammad is reputed to have said, "Do not blame Ali, for he is too scrupulous in the things of God, or the way of God, to be blamed." (Guillaume p. 650). The Sunnis argue that it is a mistake to interpret an expression of friendship and support as the appointment of a successor. The fact that there even was a dispute over the leadership after Muhammad's death is sufficient proof that no one had interpreted his words as a binding appointment. On the other hand, the Shias regard the disputers to have blatantly disregarding the Hidith of Ghadir and ussurped Ali's right to Caliphate.
In another Sunni version, Ibn - Abbas
narrates that when Muhammad was commanded by Allah to declare Ali's Caliphate
(at Ghadir Khumm), he was a bit apprehensive because the people would think that Muhammad is enforcing his family's rule over them. But Allah ordered him that if this task was not executed, divine wrath would be the consequence
. Reportedly, before he died, Muhammad made a gesture of enormous trust in Abubakr by asking him to lead the prayers in the mosque
as Imam
— a highly visible role virtually always undertaken, when possible, by Muhammad himself. Historically, the Imam of a mosque has always been a leader in his local Muslim community.
, held a meeting to discuss choosing a new leader among themselves, to rule their part of the community. When the news of the meeting spread, Abu Bakr, Umar, and Abu Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah rushed to the scene. Abu Bakr argued that if the Ansar chose a leader, to lead the Ansar only, the Muslim community would split. The new leader must come from the Quraysh, Muhammad's clan; any other choice would destroy the community. Sa'd ibn Ubadah
agreed to this. Abu Bakr suggested to the gathering that the people should choose either Umar or Abu Ubayda, as both were capable men of the Quraysh. Umar immediately grabbed Abu Bakr's hand and gave him bay'ah (declared his allegiance; an Arabian custom) causing the rest of the men at the gathering to also give their bay'ah. Umar later described this process as a falta, a rushed and hasty decision. However, this decision would not have been binding upon the rest of the Muslims unless they themselves chose to give their bay'ah, which all save the supporters of Ali did. According to the Sunni, this is the proof that the decision was the right one. The Shi'ites however maintain bitter narrations of Muslims being forced to accept Abu Bakr as their ruler and a widespread bloodshed was unleashed on those that opposed or tried to remain neutral. Khalid bin Waleed's role as having led this bloodshed on Abu Bakr's behalf is widely condemned by Shias and a disagreement between Umar and Abu Bakr on Khalid's killings has also been recorded in both Sunni and Shi'ite sources.
collected by Muhammad al-Bukhari
. Ali's cooperation is evident from the fact that he assisted all his three predecessors in making official decisions.
Shi'ite accounts regarding Ali's attitude toward the Caliphs differs from these Sunni views. They maintain that in order to avoid a civil war and bringing down the fledgling Islamic empire, Ali refrained from fighting for his usurped right to the Caliphate. He remained secluded for the first few months after the demise of the Prophet and collected and documented the Quran. He never accepted any of the Caliphs as explicitly mentioned in many of his writings and sayings (now compiled as Nehjul Balagha). However, he did support them in making several critical government decisions in the wider interests of the community. Umar ibn Khattab is reported to have said "If it were not for Ali, Umar would not have survived."
. They also consider Ali among the righteous caliphs and accept the hadiths narrated by him. They reject the Shia view that Ali considered Abu Bakr's succession undeserved.
is appointed by God alone, only God has the prerogative to appoint the successor to his prophet. They believe that God chose Ali to be the successor, infallible and divinely chosen. Thus they say that Muhammad, before his death, appointed Ali as his successor.
when Muhammad led a raid on Tabuk
. Ali was also his cousin, and the husband of his daughter Fatimah, and the father of his beloved grandchildren Hasan
and Husayn
. Ali's father was Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib
, Muhammad's uncle, foster father, and powerful protector. As a member of Abu Talib's family, Muhammad had in fact played the role of an elder brother and guardian to Ali — and Ali had, as a youth, been among the first to accept Islam. He was now a charismatic defender of the faith in his own right, and it was perhaps inevitable that some in the Muslim community assumed that Ali would claim a leadership position following Muhammad's death. In the end, however, it was Abu Bakr who assumed control of the Muslim community.
from sura
Al-Ma'ida
to make their argument on Qur'an
ic grounds: 5:55, 5:3, 5:67. They say that the verses refer to Ali, and the last two verses were revealed at Ghadir Khumm.
, Safinah, Thaqalayn
, Haqq, position
, warning
, and others.
Many of these oral traditions are also accepted by Sunni Muslims. However, the Sunni do not accept the Shia interpretation of these hadith.
The following two hadith are most often referred to by the Shia, when arguing for the explicit appointment of Ali by Muhammad.
When this verse was revealed, Muhammad organized a feast that is known in history as "Summoning the Family — Da‘wat dhul-‘Ashīra". He invited around forty men from the Banu Hashim
and asked Ali to make arrangements for the dinner. After having served his guests with food and drinks, when he wanted to speak to them about Islam, Abu Lahab ibn 'Abdul Muttalib
forestalled him and said, "Your host has long since bewitched you." All the guests dispersed before Muhammad could present his message to them.
Muhammad then invited them the next day. After the feast, he spoke to them, saying:
This was the first time that Muhammad openly and publicly called the relations to accept him as the Messenger and Prophet of God, as well as being the first time that he called for a person who would aid him in his mission. At the time, no one but the youngest of them — Ali, stood up and said, "I will be your helper, O Prophet of God."
Muhammad then put his hand on the back of Ali's neck and said:
in Mecca
. Some early accounts say that after finishing his pilgrimage, on his return to Medina, he and his followers stopped at a spring and waypoint called Ghadir Khumm. Muhammad delivered a speech to his assembled followers, in which the traditions state that Muhammad said:
According to the Shia, this hadith, the hadith of the pond of Khumm, indicated the intent of Muhammad. They note that the translation of the word mawla as "friend" is highly unlikely and therefore misleading because: a) the word sadeeq is an appropriate, unambiguous and completely accurate translation of the word "friend". b) the connotations of the word mawla nearly always have an implication of a superior-inferior relationship. Hence, mawla can be taken to mean a variety of words in this context, such as master, commander or even slave, but friend is inaccurate. The Shia say that there were 120,000 witnesses to this declaration, including Umar and Abu Bakr.
, Muhammad fell ill. He was nursed in the apartment of his wife Aisha, the daughter of Abu Bakr.
The Shia claim that most of the prominent men among the Muslims, expecting Muhammad's death and an ensuing struggle for power, disobeyed his orders to join a military expedition bound for Syria
. They stayed in Medina, waiting for Muhammad's death and their chance to seize power.
According to `Abd Allah ibn `Abbas
(cousin of Muhammad) Book 13 Hadith No. 4016, the dying Muhammad said that he wished to write a letter — or wished to have a letter written — detailing his wishes for his community. According to Sahih Muslim
ibn `Abbas narrated that:
When Muhammad died, Umar denied his death stating rather that he would return back, and threatening to behead anyone who acceded to his death. Abu Bakr, upon his return to Medina, spoke to Umar and only then Umar did admit that Muhammad had died, this all was perceived by the Shia as a ploy on Umar's part to delay the funeral and thus give Abu Bakr (who was outside the city) time to return to Medina.
weren't told, was taking place at Saqifah, which ended with Abu Bakr being chosen as the new leader.
Umar pushed his way into the house; Fatimah, who was pregnant, was crushed behind the door. She miscarried her unborn son, whom the Shia mourn as Muhsin ibn Ali
. She had been injured by Umar and soon died. Ali buried her at night, secretly, as he did not wish Abu Bakr or Umar, whom he blamed for her death, to attend her funeral. The Shia thus blame Abu Bakr and Umar for the death of Muhammad's daughter and grandson.
. It may be because of the sake of unity that he might have helped them in matters of jurisprudence and administration but could never admit his obedience to them.
Other Shia say that Ali did not give his allegiance, but only refrained from pressing his claims. Whatever happened, superficial unity was restored.
written by Institute for Ismaili Studies in London's researcher Wilfred Madelung, ex Laudian Professor of Arabic
at the University of Oxford
, examines the course of events from 632, and the death of Muhammad, through the rise of the Umayyads — and rehabilitates some of the Shia narratives. On the right of Muhammad's household to succeed him, for instance, Madelung observes that:
Madelung writes on the basis of the hadith of the pond of Khumm Ali later insisted on his religious authority superior to that of Abu Bakr and Umar.
Muhammad
Muhammad |ligature]] at U+FDF4 ;Arabic pronunciation varies regionally; the first vowel ranges from ~~; the second and the last vowel: ~~~. There are dialects which have no stress. In Egypt, it is pronounced not in religious contexts...
after his death, comprising who might be considered as his successor to lead the Muslim
Muslim
A Muslim, also spelled Moslem, is an adherent of Islam, a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion based on the Quran, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God as revealed to prophet Muhammad. "Muslim" is the Arabic term for "submitter" .Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable...
s, how that person should be elected, the conditions of legitimacy, and the role of successor. Different answers to these questions have led to emerging several divisions
Islamic schools and branches
Muslims are basically divided in two major factions, Sunnis and Shias, that are further divided into various Schools of Jurisprudence and orders of Imamate. All other movements within such as Salafi, Modernists, the Mystical Sufi Orders, Deobandi and Barelvi are either Sunni or Shia or both...
in Muslim community
Ummah
Ummah is an Arabic word meaning "community" or "nation." It is commonly used to mean either the collective nation of states, or the whole Arab world...
since the first century of Muslim history
Muslim history
Muslim history is the history of Muslim people. In the history of Islam the followers of the religion of Islam have impacted political history, economic history, and military history...
; the most important of them are Sunni
Sunni Islam
Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam. Sunni Muslims are referred to in Arabic as ʾAhl ūs-Sunnah wa āl-Ǧamāʿah or ʾAhl ūs-Sunnah for short; in English, they are known as Sunni Muslims, Sunnis or Sunnites....
s, Shias and Kharijites
Kharijites
Kharijites is a general term embracing various Muslims who, while initially supporting the authority of the final Rashidun Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib, the son-in-law and cousin of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, then later rejected his leadership...
.
Umar
`Umar ibn al-Khattāb c. 2 November , was a leading companion and adviser to the Islamic prophet Muhammad who later became the second Muslim Caliph after Muhammad's death....
(Umar ibn al-Khattab), a prominent companion
Sahaba
In Islam, the ' were the companions, disciples, scribes and family of the Islamic prophet...
of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr
Abu Bakr
Abu Bakr was a senior companion and the father-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He ruled over the Rashidun Caliphate from 632-634 CE when he became the first Muslim Caliph following Muhammad's death...
. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph
Caliph
The Caliph is the head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the ruler of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah. It is a transcribed version of the Arabic word which means "successor" or "representative"...
. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali
Ali
' |Ramaḍān]], 40 AH; approximately October 23, 598 or 600 or March 17, 599 – January 27, 661).His father's name was Abu Talib. Ali was also the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and ruled over the Islamic Caliphate from 656 to 661, and was the first male convert to Islam...
(Ali ibn Abi Talib), his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated his successor. None of Muhammad's sons survived into adulthood, therefore direct hereditary succession was never an option. Later, during the First Fitna
First Fitna
The First Islamic Civil War , also called the First Fitna , was the first major civil war within the Islamic Caliphate. It arose as a struggle over who had the legitimate right to become the ruling Caliph...
and the Second Fitna
Second Fitna
The Second Fitna, or Second Islamic Civil War, was a period of general political and military disorder that afflicted the Islamic empire during the early Umayyad dynasty, following the death of the first Umayyad caliph Muawiyah I...
the community divided into several sects and groups, each of which had its own idea about successorship. Finally, after the Rashidun
Rashidun
The Rightly Guided Caliphs or The Righteous Caliphs is a term used in Sunni Islam to refer to the first four Caliphs who established the Rashidun Caliphate. The concept of "Rightly Guided Caliphs" originated with the Abbasid Dynasty...
caliphate
Caliphate
The term caliphate, "dominion of a caliph " , refers to the first system of government established in Islam and represented the political unity of the Muslim Ummah...
turned into Monarchies
Monarchy
A monarchy is a form of government in which the office of head of state is usually held until death or abdication and is often hereditary and includes a royal house. In some cases, the monarch is elected...
and Sultan
Sultan
Sultan is a title with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic language abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", and "dictatorship", derived from the masdar سلطة , meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it came to be used as the title of certain rulers who...
ates, while in most of the areas during Muslim history Sunnis have held power and Shias have emerged as their opposition.
From a religious viewpoint, Muslims later split into two groups, Sunni and Shia. Sunnis assert that even though Muhammad never appointed a successor, Abu Bakr was elected first caliph by the Muslim community. The Sunnis recognize the first four caliphs as Muhammad's rightful successors. Shias believe that Muhammad explicitly named his successor Ali at Ghadir Khumm and Muslim leadership belonged to him who had been determined by divine order.
The two groups also disagree on Ali's attitude towards Abu Bakr, and the two caliphs who succeeded him: Umar and Uthman ibn Affan. Sunnis tend to stress Ali's acceptance and support of their rule, while the Shia claim that he distanced himself from them, and that he was being kept from fulfilling the religious duty that Muhammad had appointed to him. Sunnis maintain that if Ali was the rightful successor as ordained by God
God in Islam
In Islamic theology, God is the all-powerful and all-knowing creator, sustainer, ordainer, and judge of the universe. Islam puts a heavy emphasis on the conceptualization of God as strictly singular . God is unique and inherently One , all-merciful and omnipotent. According to the Islamic...
, then it would have been his duty as leader of the Muslim nation to make war with these people (Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman) until Ali established the decree. Shias contend that Ali did not fight Abu Bakr, Umar or Uthman, because he was foretold by Prophet Muhammad about how the political tide will turn against Ali after his demise and was advised not to wage war against the political oppressors. Also, he did not have the military strength nor the willingness to wage a civil war amongst the Muslims. Ali also believed that he could fulfil his role of Imamate
Imamah (Shi'a doctrine)
Imāmah is the Shia doctrine of religious, spiritual and political leadership of the Ummah. The Shīa believe that the A'immah are the true Caliphs or rightful successors of Muḥammad, and further that Imams are possessed of divine knowledge and authority as well as being part of the Ahl al-Bayt,...
without this fighting .
Historiography
Most of the Islamic history seems to have been primarily transmitted orally until after the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate.The historical works by later Muslim writers include the traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him (the sira
Prophetic biography
The sīrat rasūl allāh or al-sīra al-nabawiyya or just al-sīra, is the Arabic term used for the various traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad from which, in addition to the Qur'an and Hadith, most historical information about his life and the early period of Islam is derived.-Etymology:In the...
and hadith
Hadith
The term Hadīth is used to denote a saying or an act or tacit approval or criticism ascribed either validly or invalidly to the Islamic prophet Muhammad....
literature), which provide further information on Muhammad's life. The earliest surviving written sira (biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him) is Sirah Rasul Allah (Life of God's Messenger) by Ibn Ishaq
Ibn Ishaq
Muḥammad ibn Isḥaq ibn Yasār ibn Khiyār was an Arab Muslim historian and hagiographer...
(d. 761 or 767 CE). Although the original work is lost, portions of it survive in the recension
Recension
Recension is the practice of editing or revising a text based on critical analysis. When referring to manuscripts, this may be a revision by another author...
s of Ibn Hisham
Ibn Hisham
Abu Muhammad 'Abd al-Malik bin Hisham , or Ibn Hisham edited the biography of Muhammad written by Ibn Ishaq. Ibn Ishaq's work is lost and is now only known in the recensions of Ibn Hisham and al-Tabari. Ibn Hisham grew up in Basra, Iraq, but moved afterwards to Egypt, where he gained a name...
(d. 833 CE) and Al-Tabari
Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari
Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari was a prominent and influential Sunni scholar and exegete of the Qur'an from Persia...
(d. 923 CE). Many, but not all, scholars accept the accuracy of these biographies, though their accuracy is unascertainable. Studies by J. Schacht and Goldziher has led scholars to distinguish between the traditions touching legal matters and the purely historical ones. According to William Montgomery Watt
William Montgomery Watt
William Montgomery Watt was a Scottish historian, an Emeritus Professor in Arabic and Islamic Studies at the University of Edinburgh...
, in the legal sphere it would seem that sheer invention could have very well happened. In the historical sphere however, aside from exceptional cases, the material may have been subject to "tendential shaping" rather than being made out of whole cloth.
Modern Western scholars are much less likely than Sunni Islamic scholars to trust the work of the Abbasid historians. Western historians approach the classic Islamic histories with varying degrees of circumspection.
Hadith compilations are records of the traditions or sayings of Muhammad. It might be defined as the biography of Muhammad perpetuated by the long memory of his community for their exemplification and obedience. The development of hadith is a vital element during the first three centuries of Islamic history.
There had been a common tendency among the earlier western scholars against these narrations and reports gathered in later periods; such scholars regarding them as later fabrications. Leone Caetani
Leone Caetani
Leone Caetani , Duke of Sermoneta , was an Italian scholar, politician and historian of the Middle-East....
considered the attribution of historical reports to `Abd Allah ibn `Abbas
`Abd Allah ibn `Abbas
Abd Allah ibn Abbas was a paternal cousin of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He is revered by Muslims for his knowledge and was an expert in Tafsir , as well as an authority on the Islamic Sunnah.-Family:...
and Aisha
Aisha
Aisha bint Abu Bakr also transcribed as was Muhammad's favorite wife...
as mostly fictitious while proffering accounts reported without isnad by the early compilers of history like Ibn Ishaq. Wilferd Madelung
Wilferd Madelung
Wilferd Ferdinand Madelung is a scholar of Islam. He was born in Stuttgart, Germany, where he completed his early education at Eberhard-Ludwigs-Gymnasium....
has rejected the stance of indiscriminately dismissing everything not included in "early sources" and in this approach tendentious alone is no evidence for late origin. Madelung and some later historians do not reject the narrations which have been complied in later periods and try to judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures.
The only contemporary source is The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays
The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays
The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays is a Hadith collection, collected by Sulaym ibn Qays who entrusted it to Aban ibn abi-Ayyash.According to the Shi'a, the book "has received endorsement from five Infallible Imams." The author researched and verified events before he penned them so that their...
or Kitab al-Saqifah which is written by Sulaym ibn Qays
Sulaym ibn Qays
Sulaym Ibn Qays was one of the purported Companions of Ali but he "is widely considered an anti-Umayyad polemical invention" by Sunni scholarship. He has a well-known book known as The book of Sulaym ibn Qays...
(death: 75-95 AH (694-714)). This is a collection of hadith and historical reports from 1st century of the Islamic calendar
Islamic calendar
The Hijri calendar , also known as the Muslim calendar or Islamic calendar , is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 lunar months in a year of 354 or 355 days. It is used to date events in many Muslim countries , and used by Muslims everywhere to determine the proper day on which to celebrate Islamic...
and narrates the events which relate to the succession in detail.
Election of Abu Bakr
After uniting the Arabian tribesTribes of Arabia
Tribes of Arabia refers to Arab clans hailing from the Arabian Peninsula.Much of the lineage provided before Ma'ad relies on biblical genealogy and therefore questions persist concerning the accuracy of this segment of Arab genealogy...
into a single Muslim religious polity in the last years of his life, Muhammad's death in 632 signalled disagreement over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. At a gathering attended by a small group of Muslims at Saqifah
Saqifah
The Saqīfah , also known as Saqīfah banī Sāˤidat , was a roofed building used by the tribe called the banū Sāˤidat of the faction of the banū Khazraj tribe of the city of Medina in the Hejaz, northwestern Arabia.- Significance of Saqifah :...
a companion of Muhammad named Abu Bakr was nominated for the leadership of the community. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. The choice of Abu Bakr disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali had been designated his successor by Muhammad himself. However Sunnis allege that Ali accepted Abu Bakr, Omar and Uthman's subsequent leadership.
Following his election to the caliphate, Abu Bakr and Umar with a few other companions headed to Fatimah's house
Umar at Fatimah's house
Umar at Fatimah's house refers to the controversial event where Umar came to the house of Fatimah, the daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, in order to get the allegiance of Ali and his followers or burn her house down...
to obtain homage from Ali and his supporters who had gathered there. Then Umar threatened to set the house on fire unless they came out and swore allegiance with Abu Bakr. Although the event of Umar setting fire to Fatima's house is widely recorded in many Sunni and all Shi'ite histories, there is adisagreement among the sources about what happened next. Some sources say upon seeing them, Ali came out with his sword drawn but was disarmed by Umar and their companions. Shi'ite sources narrate that Umar set fire to the door of Fatima's house and then kicked the door open, crushing Fatima who was standing behind the door trying to keep the door shut. This crushing blow caused Mohsin, the son Fatima was pregnant with, to die in her womb and broke her ribs (the same blow later caused Fatima's death as well). Ali, who was under Prophet Muhammad's orders not to fight back had to be patient to avoid bloodshed and was captured in chains. When Abu Bakr's selection to the caliphate was presented as a fait accompli, Ali withheld his oaths of allegiance until after the death of Fatimah. Ali did not actively assert his own right because he did not want to throw the nascent Muslim community into strife. It is recorded by both Sunni and Shi'ite sources that Fatima remained angry at Abu Bakr and Umar for what they had done until the day she died. Fatima was buried in the night by Ali without any of Abu Bakr's supporters present and the location of her grave is still disputed.
Ali himself was firmly convinced of his legitimacy for caliphate based on his close kinship with Muhammad, his intimate association and his knowledge of Islam and his merits in serving its cause. He told Abu Bakr that his delay in pledging allegiance (bay'ah
Bay'ah
Bay'ah , in Islamic terminology, is an oath of allegiance to a leader. It is known to have been practiced by the Islamic prophet Muhammad...
) as caliph was based on his belief of his own prior title. Ali did not change his mind when he finally pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr and then to Umar and to Uthman but had done so for the sake of the unity of Islam, at a time when it was clear that the Muslims had turned away from him.
According to a sermon attributed by shi'as to Ali, he maintained his right to the caliphate and said:
This matter of election of Abu Bakar is still disputed in shia sect of Islam.
The Sunni view of the succession
Sunni Muslims relate various hadith, or oral traditions, in which Muhammad is said to have recommended shuraShura
Shura is an Arabic word for "consultation". The Quran and Muhammad encourage Muslims to decide their affairs in consultation with those who will be affected by that decision....
, elections or consultation, as the best method for making community decisions. In this view of the succession, he did not nominate a successor because he expected that the community themselves would choose the new leader — as was the custom in Arabia
Arabian Peninsula
The Arabian Peninsula is a land mass situated north-east of Africa. Also known as Arabia or the Arabian subcontinent, it is the world's largest peninsula and covers 3,237,500 km2...
at the time. Some Sunnis argue that Muhammad had indicated his reliance upon Abu Bakr as second in command in many ways; he had called upon Abu Bakr to lead prayers and to make rulings in his (Muhammad's) absence. There are some hadiths asserting that Muhammad said that some would be desirous of power but he knew that God
God
God is the English name given to a singular being in theistic and deistic religions who is either the sole deity in monotheism, or a single deity in polytheism....
(and the Muslims) would make Abu Bakr the next leader (see Hadith of the succession of Abu Bakr
Hadith of the succession of Abu Bakr
A hadith, a famous recorded oral tradition among Muslims, relates the succession to Abu Bakr, the first Sunni Caliph.Although the narration is prominently quoted and referred to, it is not given any formal name, in contrast to other hadith such as the Hadith of the pond of Khumm or the Hadith of...
). Sunnis point to the fact that the majority of the people accepted Abu-Bakr as their leader as proof that his selection was wise and just.
A narration by Mousa Ibn 'Aoqbah in the book Siyar a`lam al-nubala by Al-Dhahabi
Al-Dhahabi
Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn `Uthman ibn Qaymaz ibn `Abd Allah, Shams al-Din Abu `Abd Allah al-Turkmani al-Diyarbakri al-Fariqi al-Dimashqi al-Dhahabi al-Shafi`i , known as Al-Dhahabi , a Shafi'i Muhaddith and historian of Islam.-Biography:...
:
Shi'ites maintain that any narrations stating Ali agreed to Abu Bakr's selection are fabricated.
Ghadir Khumm
There is one hadith in the collection known as the Musnad which affirms that Muhammad made a speech at Ghadir Khumm, in which he said, "Of whomsoever I am the mawlaMawla
The word Mawlā or patron has two meanings. Mawla is an Arabic word "مولی", prominently used in Islamic literature which means protector.“Call them by their fathers: that is juster in the sight of Allah. But if you know not their father'sthey are your Brothers in faith and those entrusted to you...
, Ali is his mawla". For the Shi'ites this was the clearest message by the Prophet confirming Ali would be the successor after him. It is also recorded in books from both sides that Umar ibn Khattab was the first person to congratulate Ali on becoming the successor and took allegiance at his hand among all the others present.
The word mawla has many meanings in Arabic. While the Shi'ites take the meaning 'master' or 'ruler', some Sunni scholars say that Muhammad was merely saying that anyone who was his friend should also befriend Ali. This was a response to some Yemeni soldiers who had complained about Ali. A similar incident is described in Ibn Ishaq's Sirah; there Muhammad is reputed to have said, "Do not blame Ali, for he is too scrupulous in the things of God, or the way of God, to be blamed." (Guillaume p. 650). The Sunnis argue that it is a mistake to interpret an expression of friendship and support as the appointment of a successor. The fact that there even was a dispute over the leadership after Muhammad's death is sufficient proof that no one had interpreted his words as a binding appointment. On the other hand, the Shias regard the disputers to have blatantly disregarding the Hidith of Ghadir and ussurped Ali's right to Caliphate.
In another Sunni version, Ibn - Abbas
`Abd Allah ibn `Abbas
Abd Allah ibn Abbas was a paternal cousin of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He is revered by Muslims for his knowledge and was an expert in Tafsir , as well as an authority on the Islamic Sunnah.-Family:...
narrates that when Muhammad was commanded by Allah to declare Ali's Caliphate
Hadith of the pond of Khumm
The Hadith of the pond of Khumm refers to the saying about a historical event crucial to Islamic history. This event took place on 18th of Dhu al-Hijjah of 10 AH in the Islamic calendar at a place called Ghadir Khumm, which is located near the city of al-Juhfah, Saudi Arabia and was a place...
(at Ghadir Khumm), he was a bit apprehensive because the people would think that Muhammad is enforcing his family's rule over them. But Allah ordered him that if this task was not executed, divine wrath would be the consequence
Muhammad's last illness
Muhammad asked permission from his wives to spend his last days with AishaAisha
Aisha bint Abu Bakr also transcribed as was Muhammad's favorite wife...
. Reportedly, before he died, Muhammad made a gesture of enormous trust in Abubakr by asking him to lead the prayers in the mosque
Mosque
A mosque is a place of worship for followers of Islam. The word is likely to have entered the English language through French , from Portuguese , from Spanish , and from Berber , ultimately originating in — . The Arabic word masjid literally means a place of prostration...
as Imam
Imam
An imam is an Islamic leadership position, often the worship leader of a mosque and the Muslim community. Similar to spiritual leaders, the imam is the one who leads Islamic worship services. More often, the community turns to the mosque imam if they have a religious question...
— a highly visible role virtually always undertaken, when possible, by Muhammad himself. Historically, the Imam of a mosque has always been a leader in his local Muslim community.
The events at Saqifah
The original Medinan Muslims, the AnsarAnsar (Islam)
Ansar is an Islamic term that literally means "helpers" and denotes the Medinan citizens that helped Muhammad and the Muhajirun on the arrival to the city after the migration to Medina...
, held a meeting to discuss choosing a new leader among themselves, to rule their part of the community. When the news of the meeting spread, Abu Bakr, Umar, and Abu Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah rushed to the scene. Abu Bakr argued that if the Ansar chose a leader, to lead the Ansar only, the Muslim community would split. The new leader must come from the Quraysh, Muhammad's clan; any other choice would destroy the community. Sa'd ibn Ubadah
Sa'd ibn Ubadah
Sa'd ibn Ubadah ibn Dulaim was one of the prominent Sahabah and Ansar, the chief of the Banu Khazraj.He participated in the secret second pledge at al-Aqabah. It was not after that the Medinan pilgrims had left the city, that the Meccans became aware of the meeting at Aqabah. They pursued the...
agreed to this. Abu Bakr suggested to the gathering that the people should choose either Umar or Abu Ubayda, as both were capable men of the Quraysh. Umar immediately grabbed Abu Bakr's hand and gave him bay'ah (declared his allegiance; an Arabian custom) causing the rest of the men at the gathering to also give their bay'ah. Umar later described this process as a falta, a rushed and hasty decision. However, this decision would not have been binding upon the rest of the Muslims unless they themselves chose to give their bay'ah, which all save the supporters of Ali did. According to the Sunni, this is the proof that the decision was the right one. The Shi'ites however maintain bitter narrations of Muslims being forced to accept Abu Bakr as their ruler and a widespread bloodshed was unleashed on those that opposed or tried to remain neutral. Khalid bin Waleed's role as having led this bloodshed on Abu Bakr's behalf is widely condemned by Shias and a disagreement between Umar and Abu Bakr on Khalid's killings has also been recorded in both Sunni and Shi'ite sources.
Ali's attitude towards Abu Bakr and Umar
Sunni accounts say that after a period during which he withdrew from public affairs, Ali eventually decided to cooperate with Abu Bakr and give his public submission. One version of the story is found in an oral traditionOral tradition
Oral tradition and oral lore is cultural material and traditions transmitted orally from one generation to another. The messages or testimony are verbally transmitted in speech or song and may take the form, for example, of folktales, sayings, ballads, songs, or chants...
collected by Muhammad al-Bukhari
Muhammad al-Bukhari
Muhammad Ibn Ismail Ibn Ibrahim Ibn al-Mughirah Ibn Bardizbah al-Bukhari , popularly known as Bukhari or Imam Bukhari, , was a Sunni Islamic scholar of Persia...
. Ali's cooperation is evident from the fact that he assisted all his three predecessors in making official decisions.
Shi'ite accounts regarding Ali's attitude toward the Caliphs differs from these Sunni views. They maintain that in order to avoid a civil war and bringing down the fledgling Islamic empire, Ali refrained from fighting for his usurped right to the Caliphate. He remained secluded for the first few months after the demise of the Prophet and collected and documented the Quran. He never accepted any of the Caliphs as explicitly mentioned in many of his writings and sayings (now compiled as Nehjul Balagha). However, he did support them in making several critical government decisions in the wider interests of the community. Umar ibn Khattab is reported to have said "If it were not for Ali, Umar would not have survived."
Sunni attitude towards Ali
Sunni Muslims consider Ali as one of the prominent companions of Muhammad, among the ten, including Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman, who were informed with the gift of paradiseHadith of the ten promised paradise
The prophet Muhammad, in a Hadith accepted by Sunni Muslims, specified ten of his companions who were promised paradise. Those companions named in this Hadith are referred to by Sunnis as The Ten Promised Paradise...
. They also consider Ali among the righteous caliphs and accept the hadiths narrated by him. They reject the Shia view that Ali considered Abu Bakr's succession undeserved.
The Shia view of the succession
The Shia believe that just as a prophetProphets of Islam
Muslims identify the Prophets of Islam as those humans chosen by God and given revelation to deliver to mankind. Muslims believe that every prophet was given a belief to worship God and their respective followers believed it as well...
is appointed by God alone, only God has the prerogative to appoint the successor to his prophet. They believe that God chose Ali to be the successor, infallible and divinely chosen. Thus they say that Muhammad, before his death, appointed Ali as his successor.
Life of Ali
Ali was a leader in battle, and often entrusted with command. He was left in charge of the community at MedinaMedina
Medina , or ; also transliterated as Madinah, or madinat al-nabi "the city of the prophet") is a city in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia, and serves as the capital of the Al Madinah Province. It is the second holiest city in Islam, and the burial place of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad, and...
when Muhammad led a raid on Tabuk
Battle of Tabouk
The Battle of Tabouk was a military expedition, which, according to Muslim biographies, was initiated by the Prophet Muhammad in October, AD 630. Muhammad led a force of as many as 30,000 north to Tabouk in present-day northwestern Saudi Arabia, with the intention of engaging the Byzantine army...
. Ali was also his cousin, and the husband of his daughter Fatimah, and the father of his beloved grandchildren Hasan
Hasan ibn Ali
Al-Hasan ibn ‘Alī ibn Abī Tālib is an important figure in Islam, the son of Fatimah the daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and of the fourth Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib. Hasan is a member of the Ahl al-Bayt and Ahl al-Kisa...
and Husayn
Husayn ibn Ali
Hussein ibn ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib was the son of ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib and Fātimah Zahrā...
. Ali's father was Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib
Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib
Abi Tlib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib also known as Abu Talib ibn al-Muttalib.Talib was in reality the elder son of Abd Munāf and elder brother to Ali Ibn Abd Munāf. He was an head of Bani Hashim clan of Quraysh tribe of Mecca in Arabia. He was married to Fatima bint Asad and was an uncle of the...
, Muhammad's uncle, foster father, and powerful protector. As a member of Abu Talib's family, Muhammad had in fact played the role of an elder brother and guardian to Ali — and Ali had, as a youth, been among the first to accept Islam. He was now a charismatic defender of the faith in his own right, and it was perhaps inevitable that some in the Muslim community assumed that Ali would claim a leadership position following Muhammad's death. In the end, however, it was Abu Bakr who assumed control of the Muslim community.
The Qur'an
The Shia refer to three versesAyah
Ayah or Aayah is the Arabic word for sign or proof:"These are the Ayat of Allah, which We recite to you with truth...
from sura
Sura
A sura is a division of the Qur'an, often referred to as a chapter. The term chapter is sometimes avoided, as the suras are of unequal length; the shortest sura has only three ayat while the longest contains 286 ayat...
Al-Ma'ida
Al-Ma'ida
Sura Al-Ma'ida is the fifth chapter of the Qur'an, with 120 verses. It is a Madinan sura. The sura's main topics are Isa's and Moses' missions, as well as the claim that their messages are distorted by non-believing Jews and Christians.-Animals:...
to make their argument on Qur'an
Qur'an
The Quran , also transliterated Qur'an, Koran, Alcoran, Qur’ān, Coran, Kuran, and al-Qur’ān, is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God . It is regarded widely as the finest piece of literature in the Arabic language...
ic grounds: 5:55, 5:3, 5:67. They say that the verses refer to Ali, and the last two verses were revealed at Ghadir Khumm.
Hadith
The Shia point to a number of hadith that, they believe, show that Muhammad had left specific instructions as to his successor. These hadith have been given names: the pond of KhummHadith of the pond of Khumm
The Hadith of the pond of Khumm refers to the saying about a historical event crucial to Islamic history. This event took place on 18th of Dhu al-Hijjah of 10 AH in the Islamic calendar at a place called Ghadir Khumm, which is located near the city of al-Juhfah, Saudi Arabia and was a place...
, Safinah, Thaqalayn
Qur'an and Sunnah
Qur'an and Sunnah is an often quoted Islamic term regarding the sources of Islam. Muslims hold that Islam is derived from two sources: one being infallible and containing compressed information — the Qur'an — and another being a detailed explanation of the everyday application of the principles...
, Haqq, position
Hadith of position
Hadith al-Manzilah is a Hadith in Islam.It is one of the primary hadiths used by the Shia to justify Ali's right in the Succession of Muhammad. The Sunnis however, interpret it otherwise....
, warning
Hadith of warning
The warning hadith , also known as "invitation of the close families" is a famous Islamic hadith, that is recorded in all Muslim books through different chain of narration, which is considered to be mutawatir and sahih...
, and others.
Many of these oral traditions are also accepted by Sunni Muslims. However, the Sunni do not accept the Shia interpretation of these hadith.
The following two hadith are most often referred to by the Shia, when arguing for the explicit appointment of Ali by Muhammad.
Da‘wat dhul-‘Ashīrah - Summoning the Family
Islam began when Muhammad became thirty-seven years old. Initially, the mission was kept a secret. Then three years after the advent of Islam, he was ordered to commence the open declaration of his message. This was the occasion when God revealed the verse "And warn your nearest relations,".When this verse was revealed, Muhammad organized a feast that is known in history as "Summoning the Family — Da‘wat dhul-‘Ashīra". He invited around forty men from the Banu Hashim
Banu Hashim
Banū Hāshim was a clan in the Quraysh tribe. Muhammad, was a member of this clan; his great-grandfather was Hashim, for whom the clan is named. Members of this clan are referred to by the Anglicised version of their name as Hashemites, or Huseini or Hasani...
and asked Ali to make arrangements for the dinner. After having served his guests with food and drinks, when he wanted to speak to them about Islam, Abu Lahab ibn 'Abdul Muttalib
Abu Lahab ibn 'Abdul Muttalib
Abu Lahab was one of the enemies of Islam at Muhammad's time, condemned by name in the Qur'an in sura Al-Masadd. His full name was Abd-al-Uzza, but he was called Abu Lahab because his cheeks were always red or inflamed...
forestalled him and said, "Your host has long since bewitched you." All the guests dispersed before Muhammad could present his message to them.
Muhammad then invited them the next day. After the feast, he spoke to them, saying:
This was the first time that Muhammad openly and publicly called the relations to accept him as the Messenger and Prophet of God, as well as being the first time that he called for a person who would aid him in his mission. At the time, no one but the youngest of them — Ali, stood up and said, "I will be your helper, O Prophet of God."
Muhammad then put his hand on the back of Ali's neck and said:
Ghadir Khumm
In 632 CE, Muhammad made his last pilgrimage to the KaabaKaaba
The Kaaba is a cuboid-shaped building in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, and is the most sacred site in Islam. The Qur'an states that the Kaaba was constructed by Abraham, or Ibraheem, in Arabic, and his son Ishmael, or Ismaeel, as said in Arabic, after he had settled in Arabia. The building has a mosque...
in Mecca
Mecca
Mecca is a city in the Hijaz and the capital of Makkah province in Saudi Arabia. The city is located inland from Jeddah in a narrow valley at a height of above sea level...
. Some early accounts say that after finishing his pilgrimage, on his return to Medina, he and his followers stopped at a spring and waypoint called Ghadir Khumm. Muhammad delivered a speech to his assembled followers, in which the traditions state that Muhammad said:
According to the Shia, this hadith, the hadith of the pond of Khumm, indicated the intent of Muhammad. They note that the translation of the word mawla as "friend" is highly unlikely and therefore misleading because: a) the word sadeeq is an appropriate, unambiguous and completely accurate translation of the word "friend". b) the connotations of the word mawla nearly always have an implication of a superior-inferior relationship. Hence, mawla can be taken to mean a variety of words in this context, such as master, commander or even slave, but friend is inaccurate. The Shia say that there were 120,000 witnesses to this declaration, including Umar and Abu Bakr.
Muhammad's last illness
Soon after returning from the Farewell PilgrimageThe Farewell Pilgrimage
The Farewell Pilgrimage was the last and only Hajj pilgrimage the Islamic prophet Muhammad participated in, in 632 CE .-Preparations:...
, Muhammad fell ill. He was nursed in the apartment of his wife Aisha, the daughter of Abu Bakr.
The Shia claim that most of the prominent men among the Muslims, expecting Muhammad's death and an ensuing struggle for power, disobeyed his orders to join a military expedition bound for Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
. They stayed in Medina, waiting for Muhammad's death and their chance to seize power.
According to `Abd Allah ibn `Abbas
`Abd Allah ibn `Abbas
Abd Allah ibn Abbas was a paternal cousin of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He is revered by Muslims for his knowledge and was an expert in Tafsir , as well as an authority on the Islamic Sunnah.-Family:...
(cousin of Muhammad) Book 13 Hadith No. 4016, the dying Muhammad said that he wished to write a letter — or wished to have a letter written — detailing his wishes for his community. According to Sahih Muslim
Sahih Muslim
Sahih Muslim is one of the Six major collections of the hadith in Sunni Islam, oral traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad. It is the second most authentic hadith collection after Sahih Al-Bukhari, and is highly acclaimed by Sunni Muslims...
ibn `Abbas narrated that:
When Muhammad died, Umar denied his death stating rather that he would return back, and threatening to behead anyone who acceded to his death. Abu Bakr, upon his return to Medina, spoke to Umar and only then Umar did admit that Muhammad had died, this all was perceived by the Shia as a ploy on Umar's part to delay the funeral and thus give Abu Bakr (who was outside the city) time to return to Medina.
The events at Saqifah
When Muhammad died, his closest relatives, Ali and Fatimah, took charge of the body. While they were engaged in washing the body and preparing it for burial, a secret meeting, of which Ali and the MuhajirunMuhajirun
Muhajirun are the early, initial Muslims who followed Muhammad on his Hijra . The early Muslims from Medina are called the Ansar .-List:*Muhammad*Ali*Umar *Abu Bakr .*Salman the Persian*Bilal ibn Ribah...
weren't told, was taking place at Saqifah, which ended with Abu Bakr being chosen as the new leader.
Shī‘at of ‘Alī
Just as Ali had refused to give his allegiance (bay'ah) to Abu Bakr, many of the Muslims of Medina had also refused, thus they were known as: "Shī‘at ‘Alī" (the "Party of Ali"). It took six months of threat and pressure to force the refusers to submit to Abu Bakr. However, upon his refusal to give allegiance, Ali had his house surrounded by an armed force led by Abu Bakr and Umar.Umar pushed his way into the house; Fatimah, who was pregnant, was crushed behind the door. She miscarried her unborn son, whom the Shia mourn as Muhsin ibn Ali
Muhsin ibn Ali
Al Muhsin or Mohsin, in Shi'a belief, was the unborn child of Fatima Al Zahra, the daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and wife of Ali ibn Abu Talib. She miscarried after being crushed behind a door by Umar and his men who had come to threaten her husband...
. She had been injured by Umar and soon died. Ali buried her at night, secretly, as he did not wish Abu Bakr or Umar, whom he blamed for her death, to attend her funeral. The Shia thus blame Abu Bakr and Umar for the death of Muhammad's daughter and grandson.
Ali submits for the sake of his followers
Some Shia believe that Ali took pity upon the sufferings of his devoted followers and gave his submission, his bay'ah, to Abu Bakr, only after Fatimah, Ali's wife and daughter of Muhammad who was angry with Abu Bakr when he refused to give her right to the inheritance of the garden of FadakFadak
Fadak was a garden oasis in Khaybar, an tract of land in northern Arabia; it is now part of Saudi Arabia. Situated approximately thirty miles from Medina, Fadak was known for its water-wells, dates, and handicrafts. When the Muslims defeated the people of Khaybar at the Battle of Khaybar; the...
. It may be because of the sake of unity that he might have helped them in matters of jurisprudence and administration but could never admit his obedience to them.
Other Shia say that Ali did not give his allegiance, but only refrained from pressing his claims. Whatever happened, superficial unity was restored.
Western academic views
Many contemporary scholars who have sifted through the early Muslim historical writings are proposing narratives that are closer to the received versions. In most cases, this has meant a swing back towards the Sunni version of events. However, one recent publication, The Succession to MuhammadThe Succession to Muhammad (book)
The Succession to Muhammad is a book written by Wilferd Madelung and released by the Cambridge University Press in 1997.Madelung says on page xi of the book:...
written by Institute for Ismaili Studies in London's researcher Wilfred Madelung, ex Laudian Professor of Arabic
Laudian Professor of Arabic
The position of Laudian Professor of Arabic at the University of Oxford was established in 1636 by William Laud, who at the time was Chancellor of the University of Oxford and Archbishop of Canterbury. The first professor was Edward Pococke, who was working as a chaplain in Aleppo in what is now...
at the University of Oxford
University of Oxford
The University of Oxford is a university located in Oxford, United Kingdom. It is the second-oldest surviving university in the world and the oldest in the English-speaking world. Although its exact date of foundation is unclear, there is evidence of teaching as far back as 1096...
, examines the course of events from 632, and the death of Muhammad, through the rise of the Umayyads — and rehabilitates some of the Shia narratives. On the right of Muhammad's household to succeed him, for instance, Madelung observes that:
Madelung writes on the basis of the hadith of the pond of Khumm Ali later insisted on his religious authority superior to that of Abu Bakr and Umar.
Academic books
- Guillaume, A.Alfred GuillaumeAlfred Guillaume was an Arabist and Islamic scholar.-Career:Guillaume took up Arabic after studying Theology and Oriental Languages at the University of Oxford. In the First World War he served in France and then in the Arab Bureau in Cairo...
, The Life of Muhammad, Oxford University Press, 1955 - Madelung, W.Wilferd MadelungWilferd Ferdinand Madelung is a scholar of Islam. He was born in Stuttgart, Germany, where he completed his early education at Eberhard-Ludwigs-Gymnasium....
, The Succession to Muhammad, Cambridge University Press, 1997 - Nasr, S. H., Muhammad: Man of God, 1995.
- Nasr, S. H., Expectation of the Millennium: Shi'Ism in History, State University of New York Press, 1989.
Shia books
- Shi'a Islam (book)Shi'a Islam (book)Shi'ite Islam is an important text on the history and thought of Shi'a Islam.Written by Muhammed H. Al-Tabataba'i, with the translation, editing, and introduction by Dr...
, by Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei and Hossein Nasr, State University of New YorkState University of New YorkThe State University of New York, abbreviated SUNY , is a system of public institutions of higher education in New York, United States. It is the largest comprehensive system of universities, colleges, and community colleges in the United States, with a total enrollment of 465,000 students, plus...
Press, 1979 - Al-Murāja'āt: A Shī'i-Sunni Dialogue by Sayyid 'Abdul-Husayn Sharafud-Dīn al-Mūsawi, 2001, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran.
- Peshawar NightsPeshawar NightsPeshawar Nights is a Shi'a book by Sultanu'l-Wa'izin Shirazi recounts a public debate between Shi'a Muslims and Sunni Muslims. The debate took place in the city of Peshawar in the Soba-e-Serhed province of Pakistan beginning on 27 January 1927.-History:According to the preface:-External links:*...
by Sultanu'l-Wa'izin ShiraziSultanu'l-Wa'izin ShiraziSultanu l-Wa'izin Shirazi is the Shi'a scholar portrayed in the book Peshawar Nights .Sultanu l-Wa'izin Shirazi was born in Tehran on 12 May 1894...
, 2001, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran. - Ask Those Who Know by Muhammad al-TijaniMuhammad al-TijaniMuhammad al-Tijani al-Samawi , is a Tunisian Muslim scholar, academic and theologian.-Biography:Mohammad al-Tijani al-Samawi was a Tunisian student who, upon making Hajj, was influenced by orthodox Saudi teachings, against saint veneration and tomb visitation, which were central to the North...
, 2001, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran. - To be with the Truthful by Muhammad al-Tijani, 2000, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran.
- The Shi'a: The Real Followers of the Sunnah by Muhammad al-Tijani, 2000, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran.
- Imamate and LeadershipImamate and LeadershipImamate and Leadership: Lessons on Islamic Doctrine is a book by Islamic scholar Mujtaba Musavi Lari.-Editions:*English version translated by Hamid Algar *1996, Foundation of Islamic Cultural Propagation in the World.-External links:...
by Mujtaba Musavi LariMujtaba Musavi Lari-Works:*Ethics and Spiritual Growth *God and His Attributes: Lessons on Islamic Doctrine *Imamate and Leadership: Lessons on Islamic Doctrine *Resurrection Judgement and the Hereafter: Lessons on Islamic Doctrine... - Imamate: the Vicegerency of the Prophet by Rizvi, S. Saeed Akhtar, (Tehran: WOFIS, 1985) pp. 57–60.
- Fara'id al-SimtaynFara'id al-SimtaynFara'id al-Simtayn is a Shia hadith collection by the Shia scholar Ibrahim b Muhammad b Himaway al Juwayni who died in 1322 AD/ 722 AH.....
by the Shia scholar Ibrahim b Muhammad b Himaway al Juwayni who died in 1322 AD/ 722 AH. (The Scale of Wisdom by M. Muhammadi Rayshahri)(Al-Tawhid Vol 8,Sāzmān-i Tablīghāt-i Islāmī (Tehran, Iran), p170)
Sunni books
- The Sealed Nectar by Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri, 2002, Darussalam Publications.
- Sahih Al-Bukhari Translated by Dr. Muhammad Muhsin Khan, 1997, Darussalam Publications
- Peshawar Nights the Art of Fictional-Narration by Abu Muhammad al-Afriqi
- The Life of Muhammad by Muhammad Husayn HaykalMuhammad Husayn HaykalMuhammad Hussein Haekal was an Egyptian writer, journalist, politician and Minister of Education in Egypt.- Life :...
Sunni Perspective
- The Sealed Nectar by Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri
- The Life of Muhammad by Muhammad Husayn Haykal
- The Prophet Mohammad and the First Muslim State by Dr. Mohammad Mahmoud Ghali
- Abu Bakr As-Siddeeq by Muhammad Rajih Jad'an
- Companions of the Prophet
- Peshawar Nights the Art of Fictional-Narration by Abu Muhammad al-Afriqi