Tacitus on Jesus
Encyclopedia
The Roman historian
Tacitus
referred to Christ
and the early Christians in Rome in his Annals
(written ca. 116 AD), book 15, chapter 44.
This passage contains an early non-Christian corroboration of the origin of Christianity, the execution of Christ described in the Canonical gospels, and the presence and persecution of Christians in 1st-century Rome
. In addition, it establishes these facts:
Scholars generally consider Tacitus's reference to the execution of Jesus by Pontius Pilate
to be both authentic and of historical value as an independent Roman source.
passage (15.44), which has been subjected to much scholarly analysis, follows a description of the six-day fire that burned much of Rome in July 64 AD and was thought by some Romans to have been set by Emperor Nero himself.
In antiquity, both in the Greek and Latin-speaking worlds the Christians ("Christiani") were often called "Chrestians", by confusion of the unfamiliar word "Christus" with the more common "Chrestus".
The surviving copies of Tacitus's works derive from two principal manuscripts, known as the Medicean manuscripts, which are held in the Laurentian Library
, and written in Latin
. It is the second Medicean manuscript, 11th century and from Monte Cassino, which is the oldest surviving copy of the passage describing Christians. In this manuscript, the first 'i' of the Christianos is quite distinct in appearance from the second, looking somewhat smudged, and lacking the long tail of the second 'i'; additionally, there is a large gap between the first 'i' and the subsequent long s
. Georg Andresen was one of the first to comment on the appearance of the first 'i' and subsequent gap, suggesting in 1902 that the text had been altered, and an 'e' had originally been in the text, rather than this 'i'.
In 1950, at Harald Fuchs' request, Dr. Teresa Lodi, the director of the Laurentian Library, examined the features of this item of the manuscript; she concluded that there are still signs of an 'e' being erased, by removal of the upper and lower horizontal portions, and distortion of the remainder into an 'i'. In 2008, Dr. Ida Giovanna Rao, the new head of the Laurentian Library's manuscript office, repeated Lodi's study, and concluded that it is likely that the 'i' is a correction of some earlier character (like an e), the change being made an extremely subtle one. Later the same year, it was discovered that under ultraviolet light, an 'e' is clearly visible in the space, meaning that the passage must originally have referred to chrestianos, a Latinized Greek word which could be interpreted as the good, after the Greek word χρηστός (chrestos). This has the meaning 'good, useful'.
According to Professor Robert Renehan, it was "natural for a Roman to interpret the words [Christus and Christianus] as the similarly-sounding χρηστός". Some early Greek scribes apparently had a similar issue, for the word for "Christians" is Χρηστιανούς in Acts of the Apostles
11:26 according to both Codex Sinaiticus
and in Minuscule 81
.
"I believe that in our passage of Tacitus, the original reading Chrestianos is the true one," says Professor Robert Renehan, stating that it was "natural for a Roman to interpret the words [Christus and Christianus] as the similarly-sounding χρηστός". A "Christian scribe" would not make such an error.
appeared in a Latin inscription
which called him a prefect
, exactly as stated in the Gospel of Luke
, while this Tacitean passage calls him a procurator
. Josephus
refers to him with the generic Greek term ηγεμων, or governor. Van Voorst thinks that the use of such different terms is what one would expect from witnesses writing in different languages, at different times in history.
Tacitus records that Claudius was the ruler who gave procurators governing power. After Herod Agrippa's death in 44 A.D., when Judea reverted to direct Roman rule, Claudius gave procurators control over Judea.
Bruce Chilton and Craig Evans state that Tacitus apparently used the title "procurator" because it was more common at the time of his writing and that this variation in the use of the title should not be taken as evidence to doubt the correctness of the information Tacitus provides.
Tacitus was a patriotic Roman senator. Accordingly, his passage shows no sympathy towards Christians, or knowledge of who their leader was. Robert E. Van Voorst
states that the passage is unlikely to be a Christian forgery because of the pejorative language used to describe Christianity. John P. Meier states that there is no historical or archaeological evidence to support the argument that a scribe may have introduced the passage into the text.
In 1885 P. Hochart had proposed that it was a pious fraud, but the editor of the 1907 Oxford edition dismissed his suggestion and treated the passage as genuine. Scholars such as Bruce Chilton, Craig Evans
, Paul R. Eddy, and Gregory A. Boyd agree with John Meier's statement that: "Despite some feeble attempts to show that this text is a Christian interpolation in Tacitus, the passage is obviously genuine.”
Robert E. Van Voorst
states that "of all Roman writers, Tacitus gives us the most precise information about Christ". John Dominic Crossan
considers the passage important in establishing that Jesus existed and was crucified, and states: "That he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be, since both Josephus and Tacitus...agree with the Christian accounts on at least that basic fact." Likewise, James D. G. Dunn considers the passage as useful in establishing facts about early Christians
(e.g., there was a sizable number of Christians in Rome around AD 60). Dunn states that Tacitus seems to be under the impression that Christians were some form of Judaism, although distinguished from them. Raymond E. Brown
and John P. Meier
state that in addition to establishing that there was a large body of Christians in Rome, the passage provides two other important pieces of historical information, namely that by around AD 60 it was possible to distinguish between Christians and Jews in Rome and that even pagans made a connection between Christianity in Rome and its origin in Judea. Gerd Theissen
and Annette Merz conclude that Tacitus gives us a description of widespread prejudices about Christianity and a few precise details about "Christus" and Christianity (the source of which remains unclear):
Tacitus's characterization of "Christian abominations" may have been based on the rumors in Rome that during the Eucharist
rituals, Christians eat the body and drink the blood of their God, which may have been interpreted as cannibalistic.
However, biblical scholar Bart D. Ehrman
wrote: "Tacitus's report confirms what we know from other sources, that Jesus was executed by order of the Roman governor of Judea, Pontius Pilate, sometime during Tiberius's reign." Indeed, R. T. France concluded that the Tacitus passage is at best just Tacitus repeating what he has heard about Christians, and Charles Guignebert argued that "So long as there is that possibility [that Tacitus is merely echoing what Christians themselves were saying], the passage remains quite worthless".
Roman historiography
Roman Historiography is indebted to the Greeks, who invented the form. The Romans had great models to base their works upon, such as Herodotus and Thucydides. Roman historiographical forms are different from the Greek ones however, and voice very Roman concerns. Unlike the Greeks, Roman...
Tacitus
Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus was a senator and a historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—examine the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero and those who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors...
referred to Christ
Jesus
Jesus of Nazareth , commonly referred to as Jesus Christ or simply as Jesus or Christ, is the central figure of Christianity...
and the early Christians in Rome in his Annals
Annals (Tacitus)
The Annals by Tacitus is a history of the reigns of the four Roman Emperors succeeding Caesar Augustus. The surviving parts of the Annals extensively cover most of the reigns of Tiberius and Nero. The title Annals was probably not given by Tacitus, but derives from the fact that he treated this...
(written ca. 116 AD), book 15, chapter 44.
This passage contains an early non-Christian corroboration of the origin of Christianity, the execution of Christ described in the Canonical gospels, and the presence and persecution of Christians in 1st-century Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
. In addition, it establishes these facts:
- There was a sizable presence of Christians in Rome around 60 AD.
- It was possible to distinguish between Christians and Jews in Rome.
- Even pagans made a connection between Christianity in Rome and its origin in Judea.
Scholars generally consider Tacitus's reference to the execution of Jesus by Pontius Pilate
Pontius Pilate
Pontius Pilatus , known in the English-speaking world as Pontius Pilate , was the fifth Prefect of the Roman province of Judaea, from AD 26–36. He is best known as the judge at Jesus' trial and the man who authorized the crucifixion of Jesus...
to be both authentic and of historical value as an independent Roman source.
English translation
The AnnalsAnnals (Tacitus)
The Annals by Tacitus is a history of the reigns of the four Roman Emperors succeeding Caesar Augustus. The surviving parts of the Annals extensively cover most of the reigns of Tiberius and Nero. The title Annals was probably not given by Tacitus, but derives from the fact that he treated this...
passage (15.44), which has been subjected to much scholarly analysis, follows a description of the six-day fire that burned much of Rome in July 64 AD and was thought by some Romans to have been set by Emperor Nero himself.
Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judæa, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their centre and become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who pleaded guilty; then, upon their information, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city, as of hatred against mankind. Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt, to serve as a nightly illumination, when daylight had expired.
Christians or Chrestians?
The surviving copies of Tacitus's works derive from two principal manuscripts, known as the Medicean manuscripts, which are held in the Laurentian Library
Laurentian Library
The Laurentian Library is a historical library in Florence, Italy, containing a repository of more than 11,000 manuscripts and 4,500 early printed books...
, and written in Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
. It is the second Medicean manuscript, 11th century and from Monte Cassino, which is the oldest surviving copy of the passage describing Christians. In this manuscript, the first 'i' of the Christianos is quite distinct in appearance from the second, looking somewhat smudged, and lacking the long tail of the second 'i'; additionally, there is a large gap between the first 'i' and the subsequent long s
Long s
The long, medial or descending s is a form of the minuscule letter s formerly used where s occurred in the middle or at the beginning of a word, for example "ſinfulneſs" . The modern letterform was called the terminal, round, or short s.-History:The long s is derived from the old Roman cursive...
. Georg Andresen was one of the first to comment on the appearance of the first 'i' and subsequent gap, suggesting in 1902 that the text had been altered, and an 'e' had originally been in the text, rather than this 'i'.
In 1950, at Harald Fuchs' request, Dr. Teresa Lodi, the director of the Laurentian Library, examined the features of this item of the manuscript; she concluded that there are still signs of an 'e' being erased, by removal of the upper and lower horizontal portions, and distortion of the remainder into an 'i'. In 2008, Dr. Ida Giovanna Rao, the new head of the Laurentian Library's manuscript office, repeated Lodi's study, and concluded that it is likely that the 'i' is a correction of some earlier character (like an e), the change being made an extremely subtle one. Later the same year, it was discovered that under ultraviolet light, an 'e' is clearly visible in the space, meaning that the passage must originally have referred to chrestianos, a Latinized Greek word which could be interpreted as the good, after the Greek word χρηστός (chrestos). This has the meaning 'good, useful'.
According to Professor Robert Renehan, it was "natural for a Roman to interpret the words [Christus and Christianus] as the similarly-sounding χρηστός". Some early Greek scribes apparently had a similar issue, for the word for "Christians" is Χρηστιανούς in Acts of the Apostles
Acts of the Apostles
The Acts of the Apostles , usually referred to simply as Acts, is the fifth book of the New Testament; Acts outlines the history of the Apostolic Age...
11:26 according to both Codex Sinaiticus
Codex Sinaiticus
Codex Sinaiticus is one of the four great uncial codices, an ancient, handwritten copy of the Greek Bible. It is an Alexandrian text-type manuscript written in the 4th century in uncial letters on parchment. Current scholarship considers the Codex Sinaiticus to be one of the best Greek texts of...
and in Minuscule 81
Minuscule 81
Minuscule 81 , or α162 is a Greek minuscule manuscript of the New Testament, on a parchment. It is dated by a colophon to the year 1044. Formerly it was labelled by 61a and 61p . The manuscript is lacunose...
.
"I believe that in our passage of Tacitus, the original reading Chrestianos is the true one," says Professor Robert Renehan, stating that it was "natural for a Roman to interpret the words [Christus and Christianus] as the similarly-sounding χρηστός". A "Christian scribe" would not make such an error.
The rank of Pilate
Pilate's rank while he was governor of Iudaea provinceIudaea Province
Judaea or Iudaea are terms used by historians to refer to the Roman province that extended over parts of the former regions of the Hasmonean and Herodian kingdoms of Israel...
appeared in a Latin inscription
Pilate Stone
The Pilate Stone is the name given to a block of limestone with a carved inscription attributed to Pontius Pilate, a prefect of the Roman-controlled province of Judaea from 26-36...
which called him a prefect
Prefect
Prefect is a magisterial title of varying definition....
, exactly as stated in the Gospel of Luke
Gospel of Luke
The Gospel According to Luke , commonly shortened to the Gospel of Luke or simply Luke, is the third and longest of the four canonical Gospels. This synoptic gospel is an account of the life and ministry of Jesus of Nazareth. It details his story from the events of his birth to his Ascension.The...
, while this Tacitean passage calls him a procurator
Procurator
Procurator may refer to:*Procurator , the title of various officials of the Roman Empire...
. Josephus
Josephus
Titus Flavius Josephus , also called Joseph ben Matityahu , was a 1st-century Romano-Jewish historian and hagiographer of priestly and royal ancestry who recorded Jewish history, with special emphasis on the 1st century AD and the First Jewish–Roman War, which resulted in the Destruction of...
refers to him with the generic Greek term ηγεμων, or governor. Van Voorst thinks that the use of such different terms is what one would expect from witnesses writing in different languages, at different times in history.
Tacitus records that Claudius was the ruler who gave procurators governing power. After Herod Agrippa's death in 44 A.D., when Judea reverted to direct Roman rule, Claudius gave procurators control over Judea.
Bruce Chilton and Craig Evans state that Tacitus apparently used the title "procurator" because it was more common at the time of his writing and that this variation in the use of the title should not be taken as evidence to doubt the correctness of the information Tacitus provides.
Authenticity and historical value
Most scholars consider Tacitus's passage to be authentic and of historical value as an independent Roman source.Authenticity
Robert E. Van Voorst
Robert E. Van Voorst is a Professor of New Testament Studies at Western Theological Seminary, in Holland, Michigan, and has published scholarly works in early Christian writings and New Testament Greek. He received his B.A. in Religion from Hope College in Holland, Michigan, his M.Div. from...
states that the passage is unlikely to be a Christian forgery because of the pejorative language used to describe Christianity. John P. Meier states that there is no historical or archaeological evidence to support the argument that a scribe may have introduced the passage into the text.
In 1885 P. Hochart had proposed that it was a pious fraud, but the editor of the 1907 Oxford edition dismissed his suggestion and treated the passage as genuine. Scholars such as Bruce Chilton, Craig Evans
Craig A. Evans
Craig Alan Evans is a biblical scholar and author.He earned his Bachelor of Arts in history and philosophy from Claremont McKenna College, a Master of Divinity from Western Baptist Seminary in Portland, Oregon, and his Master of Arts and Ph.D...
, Paul R. Eddy, and Gregory A. Boyd agree with John Meier's statement that: "Despite some feeble attempts to show that this text is a Christian interpolation in Tacitus, the passage is obviously genuine.”
Historical value
Although a few scholars question the passage given that Tacitus was born 25 years after Jesus, the majority of scholars consider it reliable. The disagreement about the historical value of the passage is based much on the fact that Tacitus does not reveal the source of his information.- The pejorative language of the passage (calling Christianity a superstition, for instance) is not likely based heavily on any statements Christians themselves may have made to Tacitus.
- Tacitus is known to have drawn on many earlier historical works now lost to us in the Annals, and he may have used official sources from a Roman archive in this case; however, if Tacitus had been copying from an official source, some scholars would expect him to have labeled Pilate correctly as a prefect rather than a procurator.
Robert E. Van Voorst
Robert E. Van Voorst
Robert E. Van Voorst is a Professor of New Testament Studies at Western Theological Seminary, in Holland, Michigan, and has published scholarly works in early Christian writings and New Testament Greek. He received his B.A. in Religion from Hope College in Holland, Michigan, his M.Div. from...
states that "of all Roman writers, Tacitus gives us the most precise information about Christ". John Dominic Crossan
John Dominic Crossan
John Dominic Crossan is an Irish-American religious scholar and former Catholic priest known for co-founding the Jesus Seminar. Crossan is a major figure in the fields of biblical archaeology, anthropology and New Testament textual and higher criticism. He is also a lecturer who has appeared in...
considers the passage important in establishing that Jesus existed and was crucified, and states: "That he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be, since both Josephus and Tacitus...agree with the Christian accounts on at least that basic fact." Likewise, James D. G. Dunn considers the passage as useful in establishing facts about early Christians
Early Christianity
Early Christianity is generally considered as Christianity before 325. The New Testament's Book of Acts and Epistle to the Galatians records that the first Christian community was centered in Jerusalem and its leaders included James, Peter and John....
(e.g., there was a sizable number of Christians in Rome around AD 60). Dunn states that Tacitus seems to be under the impression that Christians were some form of Judaism, although distinguished from them. Raymond E. Brown
Raymond E. Brown
The Reverend Raymond Edward Brown, S.S. , was an American Roman Catholic priest, a member of the Sulpician Fathers and a major Biblical scholar of his era...
and John P. Meier
John P. Meier
John Paul Meier is a Biblical scholar and Catholic priest. He attended St. Joseph's Seminary and College , Gregorian University [Rome] , and the Biblical Institute [Rome]...
state that in addition to establishing that there was a large body of Christians in Rome, the passage provides two other important pieces of historical information, namely that by around AD 60 it was possible to distinguish between Christians and Jews in Rome and that even pagans made a connection between Christianity in Rome and its origin in Judea. Gerd Theissen
Gerd Theissen
Gerd Theißen is a German Protestant theologian and New Testament scholar. He is Professor of New Testament Theology at the University of Heidelberg.-Education and career:...
and Annette Merz conclude that Tacitus gives us a description of widespread prejudices about Christianity and a few precise details about "Christus" and Christianity (the source of which remains unclear):
- Christus was a Jew and a criminal whom Pontius Pilate had executed.
- Christus authored a new religious movement that began in Judea, that was called Christianity, and that was widespread around the city of Rome during Nero's reign.
Tacitus's characterization of "Christian abominations" may have been based on the rumors in Rome that during the Eucharist
Eucharist
The Eucharist , also called Holy Communion, the Sacrament of the Altar, the Blessed Sacrament, the Lord's Supper, and other names, is a Christian sacrament or ordinance...
rituals, Christians eat the body and drink the blood of their God, which may have been interpreted as cannibalistic.
However, biblical scholar Bart D. Ehrman
Bart D. Ehrman
Bart D. Ehrman is an American New Testament scholar, currently the James A. Gray Distinguished Professor of Religious Studies at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill....
wrote: "Tacitus's report confirms what we know from other sources, that Jesus was executed by order of the Roman governor of Judea, Pontius Pilate, sometime during Tiberius's reign." Indeed, R. T. France concluded that the Tacitus passage is at best just Tacitus repeating what he has heard about Christians, and Charles Guignebert argued that "So long as there is that possibility [that Tacitus is merely echoing what Christians themselves were saying], the passage remains quite worthless".
See also
- Historicity of JesusHistoricity of JesusThe historicity of Jesus concerns how much of what is written about Jesus of Nazareth is historically reliable, and whether the evidence supports the existence of such an historical figure...
- Jesus and history pagesJesus and history-Other related topics:* The Bible and history discusses the historicity of the entire Bible.* Jesus Christ in comparative mythology is the study of Jesus from a mythographical perspective, an examination of the narrative of Jesus, as a central part of Christian mythology.* Josephus on Jesus...
- Pliny the Younger on ChristPliny the Younger on ChristPliny the Younger's evidence for the historical existence of Christ and early Christians is found in one of his collected letters. Pliny was a governor of the Roman province of Bithynia and Pontus, as well as a priest of the traditional religion of ancient Rome and a jurist...
- Suetonius on ChristSuetonius on ChristThe Roman historian Suetonius's evidence for the historical existence of Christ is found in his biographies of the Roman emperors Claudius and Nero. Although his references to Christ and Christians are brief and subject to interpretation, they are important for scholarly efforts to document the...