Taos Revolt
Encyclopedia
The Taos Revolt was a popular insurrection in January 1847 by Mexicans and Pueblo
allies against the United States
' occupation of present-day northern New Mexico
during the Mexican–American War
. In two short campaigns, United States troops and militia
crushed the rebellion of the Mexicans and their allies. The rebels regrouped and fought three more engagements, but after being defeated, they abandoned open warfare.
rule, fell to U.S. forces under Stephen Watts Kearny. Governor Manuel Armijo
surrendered at the Battle of Santa Fe
without firing a shot. When Kearny departed with his forces for California
, he left Colonel Sterling Price
in command of U.S. forces in New Mexico. He appointed Charles Bent
as New Mexico's first territorial governor.
Many New Mexicans were unreconciled to Armijo's surrender; they also resented their treatment by U.S. soldiers, which Governor Bent described:
An issue more significant than the galling daily insults was that many New Mexican citizens feared that their land titles, issued by the Mexican government, would not be recognized by the United States. They worried that American sympathizers would prosper at their expense. Following Kearny's departure, dissenters in Santa Fe
plotted a Christmas
uprising. When the plans were discovered by the US authorities, the dissenters postponed the uprising. They attracted numerous Native American allies, including Puebloan peoples, who also wanted to push the Americans from the territory.
. They were led by Pablo Montoya
, a Mexican, and Tomás Romero, a Taos Pueblo
also known as Tomasito (Little Thomas).
Romero led a Native American force to the house of Governor Charles Bent
, where they broke down the door, shot Bent with arrows, and scalped him in front of his family. After they moved on, Bent was still alive. With his wife Ignacia and children, and the wives of friends Kit Carson
and Thomas Boggs, the group escaped by digging through the adobe walls of their house into the one next door. When the insurgents discovered the party, they killed Bent, but left the women and children unharmed.
The Indians killed and scalped several other government officials, along with others seen as related to the new US territorial government. Among those killed were Stephen Lee, acting county sheriff; Cornelio Vigil, prefect and probate judge; and J.W. Leal, circuit attorney. "It appeared," wrote Colonel Price, "to be the object of the insurrectionists to put to death every...[m]an who had accepted office under the American government."
, several miles outside of Taos. Charles Autobees, an employee at the mill, saw the men coming. He rode to Santa Fe
for help from the occupying US forces. Eight to ten mountain men
were left at the mill for defense. After a day-long battle, only two of the mountain men, John David Albert
and Thomas Tate Tobin
, Autobees' half brother, survived. Both escaped separately on foot during the night. The same day Mexican insurgents killed seven American traders who were passing through the village of Mora
. At most, 15 Americans were killed in both actions on January 20.
, the business partner of the brothers William and Charles Bent. Along the way, the combined forces beat back a force of some 1,500 Mexicans and Pueblo at Santa Cruz de la Cañada
and Embudo Pass
. The insurgents retreated to Taos Pueblo
, where they took refuge in the thick-walled adobe church.
During the ensuing battle
, the US breached a wall of the church and directed cannon fire into the interior, inflicting many casualties and killing about 150 rebels. They captured 400 more men after close hand-to-hand fighting. Only seven Americans died in the battle.
A separate force of US troops under captains Israel R. Hendley and Jesse I. Morin campaigned against the rebels in Mora. The First Battle of Mora ended in a New Mexican strategic victory. The Americans attacked again in the Second Battle of Mora
and won, which ended their operations against Mora.
", including the leader "Montojo" [Montoya]. Price set up a military court in Taos to try more of the captured insurgents under civil law
. He appointed as judges Joab Houghton
, a close friend of Charles Bent; and Charles H. Beaubien
, the father of Narcisse Beaubien, who had been killed on January 19. Both men had previously been appointed as judges to the New Mexico Territory Superior Court by the late Gov. Bent in August of the previous year. George Bent, Charles’ brother, was elected foreman of the jury. The jury included Lucien Maxwell
, a brother-in-law of Beaubien; and several friends of the Bents. Ceran St. Vrain
served as court interpreter. Since the Anglo community in Taos was small, and several men had been killed by the rebels, the jury pool was extremely limited. The court was in session for fifteen days. The jury found 15 men guilty of murder and treason (under the new US rule), and the judges sentenced them to death.
A contemporary historian
and writer, Lewis H. Garrard, described the trial and events:
On April 9, the US forces hanged six of the convicted insurgents in the Taos plaza; all but one were convicted of murder, and he of treason. This was the first execution by hanging in the Taos valley. Two weeks later, the US forces executed five more. In all, the US hanged at least 28 men in Taos in response to the revolt. A year later, the United States Secretary of War
reviewed the case. He said that the one man hanged for treason, Pablo Salazar, might have been wrongfully convicted. The Supreme Court of the United States
agreed. All other convictions were affirmed.
, the Battle of Las Vegas
, and the Battle of Cienega Creek
. After the US forces won each battle, the New Mexicans and Native Americans ended open warfare.
Pueblo
Pueblo is a term used to describe modern communities of Native Americans in the Southwestern United States of America. The first Spanish explorers of the Southwest used this term to describe the communities housed in apartment-like structures built of stone, adobe mud, and other local material...
allies against the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
' occupation of present-day northern New Mexico
New Mexico
New Mexico is a state located in the southwest and western regions of the United States. New Mexico is also usually considered one of the Mountain States. With a population density of 16 per square mile, New Mexico is the sixth-most sparsely inhabited U.S...
during the Mexican–American War
Mexican–American War
The Mexican–American War, also known as the First American Intervention, the Mexican War, or the U.S.–Mexican War, was an armed conflict between the United States and Mexico from 1846 to 1848 in the wake of the 1845 U.S...
. In two short campaigns, United States troops and militia
Militia
The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary citizens to provide defense, emergency law enforcement, or paramilitary service, in times of emergency without being paid a regular salary or committed to a fixed term of service. It is a polyseme with...
crushed the rebellion of the Mexicans and their allies. The rebels regrouped and fought three more engagements, but after being defeated, they abandoned open warfare.
Background
In August 1846, the territory of New Mexico, then under MexicanMexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
rule, fell to U.S. forces under Stephen Watts Kearny. Governor Manuel Armijo
Manuel Armijo
Manuel Armijo was a New Mexican soldier and statesman who served three times as governor of New Mexico. He was instrumental in putting down the Revolt of 1837, he led the force that captured the Texan Santa Fe Expedition and he surrendered to the United States in the Mexican-American War.-Early...
surrendered at the Battle of Santa Fe
Battle of Santa Fe
The Capture of Santa Fe, also known as the Battle of Santa Fe or the Battle of Cañoncito, took place near Santa Fe, New Mexico, the capital of the Mexican Province of New Mexico, during the Mexican-American War on 8 August through 14 August 1846. No shots were fired.-Background:United States Army...
without firing a shot. When Kearny departed with his forces for California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
, he left Colonel Sterling Price
Sterling Price
Sterling Price was a lawyer, planter, and politician from the U.S. state of Missouri, who served as the 11th Governor of the state from 1853 to 1857. He also served as a United States Army brigadier general during the Mexican-American War, and a Confederate Army major general in the American Civil...
in command of U.S. forces in New Mexico. He appointed Charles Bent
Charles Bent
Charles Bent was appointed as the first Governor of the newly acquired New Mexico Territory by Governor Stephen Watts Kearny in September 1846....
as New Mexico's first territorial governor.
Many New Mexicans were unreconciled to Armijo's surrender; they also resented their treatment by U.S. soldiers, which Governor Bent described:
"As other occupation troops have done at other times and places have done, they undertook to act like conquerors." Gov. Bent implored Price's superior, Col. Alexander Doniphan, "to interpose your authority to compel the soldiers to respect the rights of the inhabitants. These outrages are becoming so frequent that I apprehend serious consequences must result sooner or later if measures are not taken to prevent them."
An issue more significant than the galling daily insults was that many New Mexican citizens feared that their land titles, issued by the Mexican government, would not be recognized by the United States. They worried that American sympathizers would prosper at their expense. Following Kearny's departure, dissenters in Santa Fe
Santa Fe, New Mexico
Santa Fe is the capital of the U.S. state of New Mexico. It is the fourth-largest city in the state and is the seat of . Santa Fe had a population of 67,947 in the 2010 census...
plotted a Christmas
Christmas
Christmas or Christmas Day is an annual holiday generally celebrated on December 25 by billions of people around the world. It is a Christian feast that commemorates the birth of Jesus Christ, liturgically closing the Advent season and initiating the season of Christmastide, which lasts twelve days...
uprising. When the plans were discovered by the US authorities, the dissenters postponed the uprising. They attracted numerous Native American allies, including Puebloan peoples, who also wanted to push the Americans from the territory.
Taos Massacre
On the morning of January 19, 1847, the insurrectionists began the revolt in Don Fernando de Taos, present-day Taos, New MexicoTaos, New Mexico
Taos is a town in Taos County in the north-central region of New Mexico, incorporated in 1934. As of the 2000 census, its population was 4,700. Other nearby communities include Ranchos de Taos, Cañon, Taos Canyon, Ranchitos, and El Prado. The town is close to Taos Pueblo, the Native American...
. They were led by Pablo Montoya
Pablo Montoya
Pablo Montoya was a New Mexican politician who was active both in the 1837 revolt against the Mexican government, and in the Taos Revolt of 1847 against the United States, during the Mexican-American War.-Early life and education:Jose Pablo Montoya was born January 7, 1816, the son of Andres...
, a Mexican, and Tomás Romero, a Taos Pueblo
Pueblo
Pueblo is a term used to describe modern communities of Native Americans in the Southwestern United States of America. The first Spanish explorers of the Southwest used this term to describe the communities housed in apartment-like structures built of stone, adobe mud, and other local material...
also known as Tomasito (Little Thomas).
Romero led a Native American force to the house of Governor Charles Bent
Charles Bent
Charles Bent was appointed as the first Governor of the newly acquired New Mexico Territory by Governor Stephen Watts Kearny in September 1846....
, where they broke down the door, shot Bent with arrows, and scalped him in front of his family. After they moved on, Bent was still alive. With his wife Ignacia and children, and the wives of friends Kit Carson
Kit Carson
Christopher Houston "Kit" Carson was an American frontiersman and Indian fighter. Carson left home in rural present-day Missouri at age 16 and became a Mountain man and trapper in the West. Carson explored the west to California, and north through the Rocky Mountains. He lived among and married...
and Thomas Boggs, the group escaped by digging through the adobe walls of their house into the one next door. When the insurgents discovered the party, they killed Bent, but left the women and children unharmed.
The Indians killed and scalped several other government officials, along with others seen as related to the new US territorial government. Among those killed were Stephen Lee, acting county sheriff; Cornelio Vigil, prefect and probate judge; and J.W. Leal, circuit attorney. "It appeared," wrote Colonel Price, "to be the object of the insurrectionists to put to death every...[m]an who had accepted office under the American government."
Arroyo Hondo and Mora massacres
The next day a large armed force of approximately 500 Mexicans and Pueblo attacked and laid siege to Simeon Turley's mill in Arroyo HondoArroyo Hondo, New Mexico
Arroyo Hondo is a small unincorporated town in Taos County near Taos, New Mexico, United States. It is historically notable as the site of the killing of six to eight employees by a force of allied Native Americans at Simon Turley's mill on January 20, 1847...
, several miles outside of Taos. Charles Autobees, an employee at the mill, saw the men coming. He rode to Santa Fe
Santa Fe, New Mexico
Santa Fe is the capital of the U.S. state of New Mexico. It is the fourth-largest city in the state and is the seat of . Santa Fe had a population of 67,947 in the 2010 census...
for help from the occupying US forces. Eight to ten mountain men
Mountain man
Mountain men were trappers and explorers who roamed the North American Rocky Mountains from about 1810 through the 1880s where they were instrumental in opening up the various Emigrant Trails allowing Americans in the east to settle the new territories of the far west by organized wagon trains...
were left at the mill for defense. After a day-long battle, only two of the mountain men, John David Albert
John David Albert
John David Albert was a mountain man born in Hagerstown, Maryland. He was orphaned in 1812 around the age of seven. His father died in the War of 1812 and his mother soon after, leaving Albert to live with a sister in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.After working on a Mississippi keelboat in 1833,...
and Thomas Tate Tobin
Thomas Tate Tobin
Tom Tobin was an American adventurer, tracker, trapper, mountain man, guide, US Army scout, and occasional bounty hunter. Tobin explored much of southern Colorado, including the Pueblo area. He associated with men such as Kit Carson, "Uncle Dick" Wootton, Ceran St. Vrain, Charley Bent, John C....
, Autobees' half brother, survived. Both escaped separately on foot during the night. The same day Mexican insurgents killed seven American traders who were passing through the village of Mora
Mora, New Mexico
Mora or Santa Gertrudis de lo de Mora is an unincorporated community in, and the county seat of, Mora County, New Mexico, United States. It is located about half way between Las Vegas, New Mexico and Taos on Highway 518 at an altitude of 7,180 feet...
. At most, 15 Americans were killed in both actions on January 20.
United States' response
The US military moved quickly to quash the revolt; Col. Price led more than 300 U.S. troops from Santa Fe to Taos, together with 65 volunteers, including a few New Mexicans, organized by Ceran St. VrainCeran St. Vrain
Ceran St. Vrain , also known as Ceran de Hault de Lassus de St. Vrain, was a major fur trader near Taos, New Mexico, where he and his partner William Bent established the trading post of Bent's Fort. St...
, the business partner of the brothers William and Charles Bent. Along the way, the combined forces beat back a force of some 1,500 Mexicans and Pueblo at Santa Cruz de la Cañada
Battle of Cañada
The Battle of Cañada was part of the Taos Revolt, a popular insurrection against the American occupation of New Mexico by Mexicans and Pueblo Indians...
and Embudo Pass
Battle of Embudo Pass
The Battle of Embudo Pass was part of the Taos Revolt, a popular insurrection against the American army's occupation of northern New Mexico. It took place on January 29, 1847, during the Mexican-American War, in what now is New Mexico.-Battle:...
. The insurgents retreated to Taos Pueblo
Taos Pueblo
Taos Pueblo is an ancient pueblo belonging to a Taos speaking Native American tribe of Pueblo people. It is approximately 1000 years old and lies about north of the modern city of Taos, New Mexico, USA...
, where they took refuge in the thick-walled adobe church.
During the ensuing battle
Siege of Pueblo de Taos
The Siege of Pueblo de Taos was the final battle during the main phase of the Taos Revolt, an insurrection against the United States during the Mexican-American War. It was also the final major engagement between American forces and insurgent forces in New Mexico during the war...
, the US breached a wall of the church and directed cannon fire into the interior, inflicting many casualties and killing about 150 rebels. They captured 400 more men after close hand-to-hand fighting. Only seven Americans died in the battle.
A separate force of US troops under captains Israel R. Hendley and Jesse I. Morin campaigned against the rebels in Mora. The First Battle of Mora ended in a New Mexican strategic victory. The Americans attacked again in the Second Battle of Mora
Second Battle of Mora
The Second Battle of Mora was a military engagement during the Taos Revolt of the Mexican-American War. After being defeated in the First Battle of Mora on January 24, 1847, American forces attacked Mora again about a week later and destroyed the New Mexican insurgents holding the town.-Battle:On...
and won, which ended their operations against Mora.
Aftermath
The next day, US officials ordered the execution of some of the captives in the plaza in a "drumhead court-martialCourt-martial
A court-martial is a military court. A court-martial is empowered to determine the guilt of members of the armed forces subject to military law, and, if the defendant is found guilty, to decide upon punishment.Most militaries maintain a court-martial system to try cases in which a breach of...
", including the leader "Montojo" [Montoya]. Price set up a military court in Taos to try more of the captured insurgents under civil law
Civil law (common law)
Civil law, as opposed to criminal law, is the branch of law dealing with disputes between individuals or organizations, in which compensation may be awarded to the victim...
. He appointed as judges Joab Houghton
Joab Houghton
Joab Houghton was an American lawyer and judge who served as the first Chief Justice of New Mexico.A native of New York, Houghton came to New Mexico when it was still a Mexican territory, and became a successful merchant...
, a close friend of Charles Bent; and Charles H. Beaubien
Charles H. Beaubien
Charles H. Beaubien , also known as Alexis Beaubien, Carlos Beaubien and Charles Trotier, was a Canadian-born American fur trader who was one of two investors who owned of northeastern New Mexico and southeastern Colorado in the Beaubien-Miranda as well as the Sangre de Cristo land grants.-Early...
, the father of Narcisse Beaubien, who had been killed on January 19. Both men had previously been appointed as judges to the New Mexico Territory Superior Court by the late Gov. Bent in August of the previous year. George Bent, Charles’ brother, was elected foreman of the jury. The jury included Lucien Maxwell
Lucien Maxwell
Lucien Bonaparte Maxwell was a rancher and entrepreneur who at one point owned more than . Along with Thomas Catron and Ted Turner, Maxwell was one of the largest private landowners in United States history....
, a brother-in-law of Beaubien; and several friends of the Bents. Ceran St. Vrain
Ceran St. Vrain
Ceran St. Vrain , also known as Ceran de Hault de Lassus de St. Vrain, was a major fur trader near Taos, New Mexico, where he and his partner William Bent established the trading post of Bent's Fort. St...
served as court interpreter. Since the Anglo community in Taos was small, and several men had been killed by the rebels, the jury pool was extremely limited. The court was in session for fifteen days. The jury found 15 men guilty of murder and treason (under the new US rule), and the judges sentenced them to death.
A contemporary historian
Historian
A historian is a person who studies and writes about the past and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race; as well as the study of all history in time. If the individual is...
and writer, Lewis H. Garrard, described the trial and events:
"It certainly did appear to be a great assumption of the part of the Americans to conquer a country and then arraign the revolting inhabitants for treason. American judges sat on the bench, New Mexicans and Americans filled the jury box, and an American soldiery guarded the halls. Verily, a strange mixture of violence and justice-a strange middle ground between martial and common law. After an absence of a few minutes the jury returned with a verdict, 'Guilty in the first degree'. Five for murder, one for treason. Treason, indeed! What did the poor devil know about his new allegiance? ... I left the room, sick at heart. Justice! Out upon the word when its distorted meaning is a warrant for murdering those who defended to the last their country and their homes."
On April 9, the US forces hanged six of the convicted insurgents in the Taos plaza; all but one were convicted of murder, and he of treason. This was the first execution by hanging in the Taos valley. Two weeks later, the US forces executed five more. In all, the US hanged at least 28 men in Taos in response to the revolt. A year later, the United States Secretary of War
United States Secretary of War
The Secretary of War was a member of the United States President's Cabinet, beginning with George Washington's administration. A similar position, called either "Secretary at War" or "Secretary of War," was appointed to serve the Congress of the Confederation under the Articles of Confederation...
reviewed the case. He said that the one man hanged for treason, Pablo Salazar, might have been wrongfully convicted. The Supreme Court of the United States
Supreme Court of the United States
The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court in the United States. It has ultimate appellate jurisdiction over all state and federal courts, and original jurisdiction over a small range of cases...
agreed. All other convictions were affirmed.
Further fighting
The revolt did not end after the Siege of Taos. New Mexican rebels engaged US forces three more times in the following months. The actions are known as the Battle of Red River CanyonRed River Canyon Affair
The Red River Canyon Affair, or the Battle of Red River Canyon, was a military action fought during the Taos Revolt of the Mexican-American War...
, the Battle of Las Vegas
Las Vegas Affair
The Las Vegas Affair or the Battle of Las Vegas was a battle of the Taos Revolt, fought in July 1847. It was initiated by American troops against New Mexican insurgents at the presidio town of Las Vegas during the Mexican-American War.-Background:...
, and the Battle of Cienega Creek
Cienega Affair
The Cienega Affair, or the Battle of Cienega Creek, was the last engagement of the Taos Revolt during the Mexican-American War. The battle occurred in July, 1847 and was fought between New Mexican insurgents, Pueblo natives and United States Army troops.-Battle:On July 9, 1847 a detachment of...
. After the US forces won each battle, the New Mexicans and Native Americans ended open warfare.
See also
- John David AlbertJohn David AlbertJohn David Albert was a mountain man born in Hagerstown, Maryland. He was orphaned in 1812 around the age of seven. His father died in the War of 1812 and his mother soon after, leaving Albert to live with a sister in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.After working on a Mississippi keelboat in 1833,...
- List of assassinated American politicians
- Battle of Embudo PassBattle of Embudo PassThe Battle of Embudo Pass was part of the Taos Revolt, a popular insurrection against the American army's occupation of northern New Mexico. It took place on January 29, 1847, during the Mexican-American War, in what now is New Mexico.-Battle:...
- Battle of CañadaBattle of CañadaThe Battle of Cañada was part of the Taos Revolt, a popular insurrection against the American occupation of New Mexico by Mexicans and Pueblo Indians...