Temple of Caesar
Encyclopedia
The Temple of Caesar
or Temple of Divus Iulius (Latin Aedes Divi Iuli or Templum Divi Iuli, Italian Tempio del Divo Giulio) also known as Temple of the Deified Julius Caesar, delubrum, heroon
or Temple of the Comet Star
, is an ancient structure in the Roman Forum
of Rome
, Italy
, located near the Regia
and the Temple of Vesta
.
in 42 BC after the senate deified
Julius Caesar
posthumously. Augustus dedicated the prostyle temple (it is still unknown if it was Ionic
, Corinthian
or Composite
) to Caesar (his adoptive father) on August 18, 29 BC, after the Battle of Actium
. It stands on the east side of the main square of the Roman Forum
(Forum), between the Regia
, Temple of Castor and Pollux and the Basilica Aemilia
, on the site of Caesar's cremation (Caesar's testament
was read at the funeral by Mark Antony
).
Caesar was the first resident of Rome to be deified
and so honored with a temple. A fourth flamen maior
was dedicated to him after 44 BC and Mark Antony was appointed as his flamen.
The high platform on which the temple was built served as a rostra
(Rostra ad divi Iuli) and, like the rostra at the opposite end of the Forum, was decorated with the beaks of ships taken at the battle of Actium
.
The Temple of Caesar was the only temple to be entirely dedicated to the cult of a Comet (Star) The Comet (Star), upon its appearance some time after Caesar's murder (44 BC), was considered to be the soul of the deified Julius Caesar and the symbol of the "new birth" of Augustus as the unique Roman ruler and Emperor. Here the account by Pliny with parts of a public speech delivered by Augustus about the Comet, his father Caesar and his own destiny:
In Greek and Roman culture, Comet is an adjective determining the distinctive characteristic of a special star. So "Comet Star" means "Long-Haired Star", and it was represented this way on coins and monuments.
The "Divine Star" was represented and worshiped on coins and probably in the temple itself, as a "Comet (Star)" or as a "simple Star": the simple Star has been used as a general symbol of Divinity since 44 BC [see 44 BC coins series]; after the appearance of the Comet (Star), the simple Star was transformed into a Comet (Star), by adding the tail to one of the rays of the simple Star [see 37-34 BC, 19-18 BC and 17 BC coins series].
According to Appian
the place near the Regia
and probably part of the Main Square of the Roman Forum
was a second choice, because the first intention of the Roman people was to bury Caesar on the Capitoline Hill
among the other Gods of Rome. However, the Roman priests prevented them from doing so (in fact, the cremation was considered not safe due to the many wooden structures there) and the corpse of Caesar was carried back to the Forum near the Regia, being the Regia the personal headquarters of Caesar as Pontifex Maximus
: this is the reason why, after a violent quarrel about the funeral pyre
and the destiny of the ashes
of Caesar, the Roman people, the men of Caesar's party and the men of Caesar's family decided to build the pyre in that place. It seems that in that very place at that time there was probably a tribunal
which, after the funeral of Caesar and the building of the Temple, was then moved in front of the Temple of Caesar, probably in the location of the so called Rostra Diocletiani. The tribunal was a tribunal praetoris sub divo with gradus and was known as tribunal Aurelium, a structure
built by C. Aurelius Cotta around 80 BC, near the so-called Puteal Libonis, a bidental
used for the sacred oath before the trials.
The corpse of Caesar was carried to the Roman Forum on an ivory couch and set up on the Rostra in a gilded shrine modelled on the Temple of Venus Genetrix, the goddess from whom the family of the Iulii comes from. Mark Antony delivered his famous speech and a public reading of the Will of Caesar was made, while a mechanical device, positioned above the bier itself, was showing an image of Caesar made of wax, turning it round and round, so that people were able to clearly see the 23 wounds in all parts of the body and on the face. So the crowd moved by the words of Mark Antony, by the Will of Caesar and by the sight of the image of wax tried to carry the corpse to Capitol among the gods and failed. In the end the corpse was set on a funeral pile created near the Regia by using all the wooden things available in the Forum, like wooden benches, and then cremated with a great fire that lasted all the night long. It seems that the ordinary funeral had been prepared at the Campus Martius
, as usual.
For the cult of the murdered pontifex maximus, a sacred man, against whom to use cutting weapons and object was strictly prohibited, an altar and a column were briefly erected in the very place of the cremation. The column was of Numidian yellow stone and had the inscription Parenti Patriae, i.e. to the founder of the nation. But this first monument was taken down and removed by the anti-Caesarian party almost immediately. In 42 BC Octavian, Lepidus and Mark Antony decreed the building of a Temple to Caesar.
After some time after the death of Caesar, in the sky of Rome a Comet (Star) appeared and was clearly visible (every day and for seven days, starting one hour before the sunset). This Comet (Star) appeared for the first time during the ritual games in front of the Temple of Venus Genetrix (Venus was the real ancestor of the Iulii family) in the Forum of Julius Caesar and everyone in Rome thought it was the soul of Caesar deified called among the other gods. After the appearance of that sign Augustus delivered a public speech giving an explanation of the appearance of the Comet (Star). The speech is partially known since we have a partial transcription of it by Pliny the Elder. After the public speech Augustus wanted a few series of coins devoted to the Comet Star and to the Deified Caesar ("Divus Iulius") to be struck and widely distributed. So we can have an idea about the type of representation of the Comet (Star) of the Deified Julius Caesar.
Augustus loved to be considered the real subject of any kind of Messianic prophecies and accounts. So during the public speech about the appearance of the Comet, he specified that he, the new ruler of the world, was born (politically) at the very appearance of his father Julius Caesar as Comet in the sky of Rome and his father was so announcing his own (political) birth. So he was the one who had to be born under the Comet and whom the appearance of the Comet was announcing.
Other messianic prophecies about Augustus are told Suetonius
, including the story of the massacre of the innocents conceived in order to kill the young Octavius soon after his own birth. At some time during his princedom, Augustus ordered that all the books of prophecies and Messianic accounts had to be gathered and utterly destroyed. The temple therefore ended up to represent both Julius Caesar as a deified being and Augustus himself as the new born under the Comet (Star) and the Comet (Star) itself was object of public worship.
The consecration of the Temple lasted many days, during which Troy siege reconstructions, gladiatorial games, hunting scenes and banquets were held. During this occasion the hippopotamus
and the rhinoceros
were shown in Rome for the first time ever. It seems that the doors of the Temple were left opened so that it was possible to see the statue of the deified pontifex maximus Julius Caesar from the main square of the Roman Forum. If this is true, the new interpretation about the location of the Rostra Diocletiani or Rostra ad Divi Iuli cannot be correct. Augustus used to dedicate the spoils of war in this temple. The altar and the shrine had the right of asylum. Every four years in front of the Rostra ad Divi Iuli, a festival was held in honour of Augustus. The Rostra ad Divi Iuli were used to deliver funeral speeches by the Emperors.
Drusus and Tiberius delivered a double speech in the Forum. Drusus was reading his speech from the Rostra Augusti and Tiberius was reading his own from the Rostra ad Divi Iuli, one in front of the other. The emperor Hadrian delivered a speech (perhaps a funeral one) from the Rostra ad Divi Iuli in 125 AD, as it can be seen on the coins series struck for the occasion.
, the Fons and Lacus Iuturnae
, the Basilica Iulia and the Basilica Aemilia
.
Vitruvius
says that the temple was an example of pycnostyle front porch (i.e. six closely spaced columns on the front). However, the real arrangement of the columns is again uncertain, as it could be both prostyle
or a peripteral.
Which type of order was originally used for this temple is still uncertain. Ancient coins evidence with representations of the Temple of Divus Iulius suggests the columns were either Ionic
or composite
, but it is a fact that fragments of Corinthian
pilastre capitals have been found on the site by archaeologists: so a few scholars hypothesize that the temple had a Ionic
pronaos combined with Corinthian pilasters on the cella
walls, i.e. at the corners of the cella, other scholars consider the temple all Corinthian and the coins evidence as bad Corinthian columns representation. The real distinction between Corinthian and composite is a Renaissance distinction and not an Ancient Roman one: in Ancient Rome Corinthian and composite were actually part of the same order, but it seems that composite was common on civil buildings and arches
exteriors and less common on temples exteriors. Many temples and religious buildings of the Augustan Age were Corinthian, such as the Temple of Mars Ultor, the Maison Carrée
in Nîmes
and others
The temple was destroyed by a fire during the reignof Septimius Severus
and then restored: being the coins from the period of Augustus and Hadrian
, there is also a possibility that the order of the temple was changed during the restoration by Septimius Severus.
The entablature
and the cornice
found on the site have a modillions and roses structure typical of the Corinthian order
.
The actual position of the staircase of the podium
is also uncertain and is a problem still to be solved. It has been supposed that staircase was frontwards in front of the podium and at the sides, or that it was backwards, at the rear of the podium and at the sides
There is no clear evidence about the real position of the staircase of the podium. The backwards position is a reconstruction model based on a hypothesized similarity between this temple and the Temple of Venus Genetrix
in the Forum of Caesar
. This similarity is not proved and is merely based on the fact that during public funeral and Mark Antony's speech the body of Julius Caesar was set on an ivory couch and in a gilded shrine modelled on the Temple of Venus Genetrix. The frontwards position is based on some evidence from the 19th century excavations and the overall impression from the actual site and the ancient coins.
Dio Cassius
reports the attachment of the rostra from the battle of Actium to the podium. They are the so called Rostra ad Divi Iuli, a podium used by orators for official and civil speeches and especially for Imperial funeral orations.
The podium is clearly visible in the coins from the Hadrian period and in the Anaglypha Traiani, but the connection between the rostra podium and the temple structure is not evident.
So also in this case there are many different hypothetical reconstructions of the general arrangement of the buildings of this part of the Roman Forum: according to the first one, the Rostra podium was attached to the Temple of Divus Iulius and is actually the podium of the Temple of Divus Iulius with the rostra (i.e. the prows of warships) attached in frontal position. According to the other reconstruction, the Rostra podium was a separate platform built west of the temple of Divus Iulius and directly in front of it, so the podium of the Temple of Divus Iulius is not the actual platform used by the orators for they speeches and was not the platform used to attach the prows of ships taken at Actium. This separate and independent podium or platform, known as Rostra ad Divi Iuli, is called also Rostra Diocletiani, due to the last arrangement of the building.
A statue at the very vertex of the frontal pediment and two statues at the end corners of the pediment (the usual, classical type of decoration for the pediments of the Roman temples) dated to Hadrian's reign.
Other Augustan Era buildings appear on coins with that particular type of Etruscan-style decoration as for the so-deemed representation of the frontal section of the Curia.
and the altar
in the front of the temple
podium are also a problem of scarce data interpretation.
They were visible in 29 BC when the temple was dedicated and when the Augustus coins series with the temple of Divus Iulius was struck (from 37 BC to 34 BC).
For the period after the coinage of that coins Series there is no clear evidence. It is sure that at a certain time the altar was removed and the niche filled in and closed with stones, so that a continuous wall was created in the podium of the temple.
This happened, accordin to the various hypotheses, either on 14 BC, at an unknown, probably before the 4th century AD, or after Constantine I
or Theodosius I
, due to religious concerns about the pagan
cult of the emperor
.
Since the altar had the right of asylum
, it seems too strange, that the altar had been removed soon after 14 BC.
Richardson and other scholars hypotesize so, that the filled in niche may have not been the altar of Julius Caesar, but the Puteal Libonis, the old bidental used during the trials at the Tribunal Aurelium (see above) for the public oath. According to C. Hülsen the circular structure visible under the Arch of Augustus
is not the Puteal Libonis and also other circular elements covered in travertine near the Temple of Caesar and the Arcus Augusti are too recent to belong to the Augustan Era.
The podium or platform area was at least 5.5 m high (18 Roman feet) but only 3.5 m at the front.
The columns, if Corinthian
, were probably 11.8/12.4 m high, corresponding to 40 or 42 Roman feet.
The frieze
was a repetitive scroll pattern with female heads, gorgon
s and winged figures. The tympanum
, at least during the first years, probably had a colossal Star, as it can be seen on the Augustan coins.
The cornice had dentils and beam type modillions (one of the first examples ever in Roman temple architecture) and undersides decorated with narrow rectangular panels carrying flowers, roses, disks, laurel crowns and pine-cones.
Remains of the decorations, among which elements of a Victory
representation and floral ornaments, are visible on the site or in the Antiquarium Museum in the Roman Forum.
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman and a distinguished writer of Latin prose. He played a critical role in the gradual transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire....
or Temple of Divus Iulius (Latin Aedes Divi Iuli or Templum Divi Iuli, Italian Tempio del Divo Giulio) also known as Temple of the Deified Julius Caesar, delubrum, heroon
Heroon
A heroon , also called heroum, was a shrine dedicated to an ancient Greek or Roman hero and used for the commemoration or cult worship of the hero. It was often erected over his supposed tomb or cenotaph....
or Temple of the Comet Star
Caesar's Comet
Caesar's Comet – also known as Comet Caesar and the Great Comet of 44 BC – was perhaps the most famous comet of antiquity...
, is an ancient structure in the Roman Forum
Roman Forum
The Roman Forum is a rectangular forum surrounded by the ruins of several important ancient government buildings at the center of the city of Rome. Citizens of the ancient city referred to this space, originally a marketplace, as the Forum Magnum, or simply the Forum...
of Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
, Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
, located near the Regia
Regia
The Regia was a structure in Ancient Rome, located in the Roman Forum. It was originally the residence of the kings of Rome or at least their main headquarters, and later the office of the Pontifex Maximus, the high priest of Roman religion. It occupied a triangular patch of terrain between the...
and the Temple of Vesta
Temple of Vesta
The Temple of Vesta is an ancient edifice in Rome, Italy, located in the Roman Forum near the Regia and the House of the Vestal Virgins. The temple's most recognizable feature is its circular footprint. Since the worship of Vesta began in private homes, the architecture seems to be a reminder of...
.
History
It was begun by AugustusAugustus
Augustus ;23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) is considered the first emperor of the Roman Empire, which he ruled alone from 27 BC until his death in 14 AD.The dates of his rule are contemporary dates; Augustus lived under two calendars, the Roman Republican until 45 BC, and the Julian...
in 42 BC after the senate deified
Imperial cult (ancient Rome)
The Imperial cult of ancient Rome identified emperors and some members of their families with the divinely sanctioned authority of the Roman State...
Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman and a distinguished writer of Latin prose. He played a critical role in the gradual transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire....
posthumously. Augustus dedicated the prostyle temple (it is still unknown if it was Ionic
Ionic order
The Ionic order forms one of the three orders or organizational systems of classical architecture, the other two canonic orders being the Doric and the Corinthian...
, Corinthian
Corinthian order
The Corinthian order is one of the three principal classical orders of ancient Greek and Roman architecture. The other two are the Doric and Ionic. When classical architecture was revived during the Renaissance, two more orders were added to the canon, the Tuscan order and the Composite order...
or Composite
Composite order
The composite order is a mixed order, combining the volutes of the Ionic order capital with the acanthus leaves of the Corinthian order. The composite order volutes are larger, however, and the composite order also has echinus molding with egg-and-dart ornamentation between the volutes...
) to Caesar (his adoptive father) on August 18, 29 BC, after the Battle of Actium
Battle of Actium
The Battle of Actium was the decisive confrontation of the Final War of the Roman Republic. It was fought between the forces of Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII. The battle took place on 2 September 31 BC, on the Ionian Sea near the city of Actium, at the Roman...
. It stands on the east side of the main square of the Roman Forum
Roman Forum
The Roman Forum is a rectangular forum surrounded by the ruins of several important ancient government buildings at the center of the city of Rome. Citizens of the ancient city referred to this space, originally a marketplace, as the Forum Magnum, or simply the Forum...
(Forum), between the Regia
Regia
The Regia was a structure in Ancient Rome, located in the Roman Forum. It was originally the residence of the kings of Rome or at least their main headquarters, and later the office of the Pontifex Maximus, the high priest of Roman religion. It occupied a triangular patch of terrain between the...
, Temple of Castor and Pollux and the Basilica Aemilia
Basilica Aemilia
The Basilica Aemilia was a civil basilica in the Roman forum, in Rome, Italy. Today only the plan and some rebuilt elements can be seen. The Basilica was 100 meters long and about 30 meters wide...
, on the site of Caesar's cremation (Caesar's testament
Will (law)
A will or testament is a legal declaration by which a person, the testator, names one or more persons to manage his/her estate and provides for the transfer of his/her property at death...
was read at the funeral by Mark Antony
Mark Antony
Marcus Antonius , known in English as Mark Antony, was a Roman politician and general. As a military commander and administrator, he was an important supporter and loyal friend of his mother's cousin Julius Caesar...
).
Caesar was the first resident of Rome to be deified
Apotheosis
Apotheosis is the glorification of a subject to divine level. The term has meanings in theology, where it refers to a belief, and in art, where it refers to a genre.In theology, the term apotheosis refers to the idea that an individual has been raised to godlike stature...
and so honored with a temple. A fourth flamen maior
Flamen
In ancient Roman religion, a flamen was a priest assigned to one of fifteen deities with official cults during the Roman Republic. The most important three were the flamines maiores , who served the three chief Roman gods of the Archaic Triad. The remaining twelve were the flamines minores...
was dedicated to him after 44 BC and Mark Antony was appointed as his flamen.
Rostra
The Rōstra was a large platform built in the city of Rome that stood during the republican and imperial periods. Speakers would stand on the rostra and face the north side of the comitium towards the senate house and deliver orations to those assembled in between...
(Rostra ad divi Iuli) and, like the rostra at the opposite end of the Forum, was decorated with the beaks of ships taken at the battle of Actium
Battle of Actium
The Battle of Actium was the decisive confrontation of the Final War of the Roman Republic. It was fought between the forces of Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII. The battle took place on 2 September 31 BC, on the Ionian Sea near the city of Actium, at the Roman...
.
The Temple of Caesar was the only temple to be entirely dedicated to the cult of a Comet (Star) The Comet (Star), upon its appearance some time after Caesar's murder (44 BC), was considered to be the soul of the deified Julius Caesar and the symbol of the "new birth" of Augustus as the unique Roman ruler and Emperor. Here the account by Pliny with parts of a public speech delivered by Augustus about the Comet, his father Caesar and his own destiny:
In Greek and Roman culture, Comet is an adjective determining the distinctive characteristic of a special star. So "Comet Star" means "Long-Haired Star", and it was represented this way on coins and monuments.
The "Divine Star" was represented and worshiped on coins and probably in the temple itself, as a "Comet (Star)" or as a "simple Star": the simple Star has been used as a general symbol of Divinity since 44 BC [see 44 BC coins series]; after the appearance of the Comet (Star), the simple Star was transformed into a Comet (Star), by adding the tail to one of the rays of the simple Star [see 37-34 BC, 19-18 BC and 17 BC coins series].
According to Appian
Appian
Appian of Alexandria was a Roman historian of Greek ethnicity who flourished during the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius.He was born ca. 95 in Alexandria. He tells us that, after having filled the chief offices in the province of Egypt, he went to Rome ca. 120, where he practised as...
the place near the Regia
Regia
The Regia was a structure in Ancient Rome, located in the Roman Forum. It was originally the residence of the kings of Rome or at least their main headquarters, and later the office of the Pontifex Maximus, the high priest of Roman religion. It occupied a triangular patch of terrain between the...
and probably part of the Main Square of the Roman Forum
Roman Forum
The Roman Forum is a rectangular forum surrounded by the ruins of several important ancient government buildings at the center of the city of Rome. Citizens of the ancient city referred to this space, originally a marketplace, as the Forum Magnum, or simply the Forum...
was a second choice, because the first intention of the Roman people was to bury Caesar on the Capitoline Hill
Capitoline Hill
The Capitoline Hill , between the Forum and the Campus Martius, is one of the seven hills of Rome. It was the citadel of the earliest Romans. By the 16th century, Capitolinus had become Capitolino in Italian, with the alternative Campidoglio stemming from Capitolium. The English word capitol...
among the other Gods of Rome. However, the Roman priests prevented them from doing so (in fact, the cremation was considered not safe due to the many wooden structures there) and the corpse of Caesar was carried back to the Forum near the Regia, being the Regia the personal headquarters of Caesar as Pontifex Maximus
Pontifex Maximus
The Pontifex Maximus was the high priest of the College of Pontiffs in ancient Rome. This was the most important position in the ancient Roman religion, open only to patricians until 254 BC, when a plebeian first occupied this post...
: this is the reason why, after a violent quarrel about the funeral pyre
Pyre
A pyre , also known as a funeral pyre, is a structure, usually made of wood, for burning a body as part of a funeral rite...
and the destiny of the ashes
Cremation
Cremation is the process of reducing bodies to basic chemical compounds such as gasses and bone fragments. This is accomplished through high-temperature burning, vaporization and oxidation....
of Caesar, the Roman people, the men of Caesar's party and the men of Caesar's family decided to build the pyre in that place. It seems that in that very place at that time there was probably a tribunal
Tribunal
A tribunal in the general sense is any person or institution with the authority to judge, adjudicate on, or determine claims or disputes—whether or not it is called a tribunal in its title....
which, after the funeral of Caesar and the building of the Temple, was then moved in front of the Temple of Caesar, probably in the location of the so called Rostra Diocletiani. The tribunal was a tribunal praetoris sub divo with gradus and was known as tribunal Aurelium, a structure
Structure
Structure is a fundamental, tangible or intangible notion referring to the recognition, observation, nature, and permanence of patterns and relationships of entities. This notion may itself be an object, such as a built structure, or an attribute, such as the structure of society...
built by C. Aurelius Cotta around 80 BC, near the so-called Puteal Libonis, a bidental
Bidental
In ancient Roman religion, the bidentales were priests who performed rituals to mark out a place that had been struck by lightning as a sacred precinct . Their primary role was to sacrifice a two-year-old sheep, in Latin bidens, meaning "having teeth on each side." Such a place was thus called a...
used for the sacred oath before the trials.
The corpse of Caesar was carried to the Roman Forum on an ivory couch and set up on the Rostra in a gilded shrine modelled on the Temple of Venus Genetrix, the goddess from whom the family of the Iulii comes from. Mark Antony delivered his famous speech and a public reading of the Will of Caesar was made, while a mechanical device, positioned above the bier itself, was showing an image of Caesar made of wax, turning it round and round, so that people were able to clearly see the 23 wounds in all parts of the body and on the face. So the crowd moved by the words of Mark Antony, by the Will of Caesar and by the sight of the image of wax tried to carry the corpse to Capitol among the gods and failed. In the end the corpse was set on a funeral pile created near the Regia by using all the wooden things available in the Forum, like wooden benches, and then cremated with a great fire that lasted all the night long. It seems that the ordinary funeral had been prepared at the Campus Martius
Campus Martius
The Campus Martius , was a publicly owned area of ancient Rome about in extent. In the Middle Ages, it was the most populous area of Rome...
, as usual.
For the cult of the murdered pontifex maximus, a sacred man, against whom to use cutting weapons and object was strictly prohibited, an altar and a column were briefly erected in the very place of the cremation. The column was of Numidian yellow stone and had the inscription Parenti Patriae, i.e. to the founder of the nation. But this first monument was taken down and removed by the anti-Caesarian party almost immediately. In 42 BC Octavian, Lepidus and Mark Antony decreed the building of a Temple to Caesar.
After some time after the death of Caesar, in the sky of Rome a Comet (Star) appeared and was clearly visible (every day and for seven days, starting one hour before the sunset). This Comet (Star) appeared for the first time during the ritual games in front of the Temple of Venus Genetrix (Venus was the real ancestor of the Iulii family) in the Forum of Julius Caesar and everyone in Rome thought it was the soul of Caesar deified called among the other gods. After the appearance of that sign Augustus delivered a public speech giving an explanation of the appearance of the Comet (Star). The speech is partially known since we have a partial transcription of it by Pliny the Elder. After the public speech Augustus wanted a few series of coins devoted to the Comet Star and to the Deified Caesar ("Divus Iulius") to be struck and widely distributed. So we can have an idea about the type of representation of the Comet (Star) of the Deified Julius Caesar.
Augustus loved to be considered the real subject of any kind of Messianic prophecies and accounts. So during the public speech about the appearance of the Comet, he specified that he, the new ruler of the world, was born (politically) at the very appearance of his father Julius Caesar as Comet in the sky of Rome and his father was so announcing his own (political) birth. So he was the one who had to be born under the Comet and whom the appearance of the Comet was announcing.
Other messianic prophecies about Augustus are told Suetonius
Suetonius
Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius , was a Roman historian belonging to the equestrian order in the early Imperial era....
, including the story of the massacre of the innocents conceived in order to kill the young Octavius soon after his own birth. At some time during his princedom, Augustus ordered that all the books of prophecies and Messianic accounts had to be gathered and utterly destroyed. The temple therefore ended up to represent both Julius Caesar as a deified being and Augustus himself as the new born under the Comet (Star) and the Comet (Star) itself was object of public worship.
The consecration of the Temple lasted many days, during which Troy siege reconstructions, gladiatorial games, hunting scenes and banquets were held. During this occasion the hippopotamus
Hippopotamus
The hippopotamus , or hippo, from the ancient Greek for "river horse" , is a large, mostly herbivorous mammal in sub-Saharan Africa, and one of only two extant species in the family Hippopotamidae After the elephant and rhinoceros, the hippopotamus is the third largest land mammal and the heaviest...
and the rhinoceros
Rhinoceros
Rhinoceros , also known as rhino, is a group of five extant species of odd-toed ungulates in the family Rhinocerotidae. Two of these species are native to Africa and three to southern Asia....
were shown in Rome for the first time ever. It seems that the doors of the Temple were left opened so that it was possible to see the statue of the deified pontifex maximus Julius Caesar from the main square of the Roman Forum. If this is true, the new interpretation about the location of the Rostra Diocletiani or Rostra ad Divi Iuli cannot be correct. Augustus used to dedicate the spoils of war in this temple. The altar and the shrine had the right of asylum. Every four years in front of the Rostra ad Divi Iuli, a festival was held in honour of Augustus. The Rostra ad Divi Iuli were used to deliver funeral speeches by the Emperors.
Drusus and Tiberius delivered a double speech in the Forum. Drusus was reading his speech from the Rostra Augusti and Tiberius was reading his own from the Rostra ad Divi Iuli, one in front of the other. The emperor Hadrian delivered a speech (perhaps a funeral one) from the Rostra ad Divi Iuli in 125 AD, as it can be seen on the coins series struck for the occasion.
Architecture
The plan of this temple is missing in the Imperial Forma Urbis as it is presently known. The remaining fragments for this area of the Roman Forum are all on the slabs V-11, VII-11, VI-6 and have plans of the Regia, the Temple of Castor and PolluxTemple of Castor and Pollux
The Temple of Castor and Pollux is an ancient edifice in the Roman Forum, Rome, central Italy. It was originally built in gratitude for victory at the Battle of Lake Regillus . Castor and Pollux were the Dioscuri, the "twins" of Gemini, the twin sons of Zeus and Leda...
, the Fons and Lacus Iuturnae
Lacus Juturnae
The Lacus Iuturnae — or Lacus Juturnae or Spring of Juturna — is the name of a formal pool built by the Romans near a spring or well in the Roman Forum...
, the Basilica Iulia and the Basilica Aemilia
Basilica Aemilia
The Basilica Aemilia was a civil basilica in the Roman forum, in Rome, Italy. Today only the plan and some rebuilt elements can be seen. The Basilica was 100 meters long and about 30 meters wide...
.
Vitruvius
Vitruvius
Marcus Vitruvius Pollio was a Roman writer, architect and engineer, active in the 1st century BC. He is best known as the author of the multi-volume work De Architectura ....
says that the temple was an example of pycnostyle front porch (i.e. six closely spaced columns on the front). However, the real arrangement of the columns is again uncertain, as it could be both prostyle
Prostyle
Prostyle is an architectural term defining free standing columns across the front of a building, as often in a portico. The term is often used as an adjective when referring to the portico of a classical building which projects from the main structure...
or a peripteral.
Which type of order was originally used for this temple is still uncertain. Ancient coins evidence with representations of the Temple of Divus Iulius suggests the columns were either Ionic
Ionic order
The Ionic order forms one of the three orders or organizational systems of classical architecture, the other two canonic orders being the Doric and the Corinthian...
or composite
Composite order
The composite order is a mixed order, combining the volutes of the Ionic order capital with the acanthus leaves of the Corinthian order. The composite order volutes are larger, however, and the composite order also has echinus molding with egg-and-dart ornamentation between the volutes...
, but it is a fact that fragments of Corinthian
Corinthian order
The Corinthian order is one of the three principal classical orders of ancient Greek and Roman architecture. The other two are the Doric and Ionic. When classical architecture was revived during the Renaissance, two more orders were added to the canon, the Tuscan order and the Composite order...
pilastre capitals have been found on the site by archaeologists: so a few scholars hypothesize that the temple had a Ionic
Ionic order
The Ionic order forms one of the three orders or organizational systems of classical architecture, the other two canonic orders being the Doric and the Corinthian...
pronaos combined with Corinthian pilasters on the cella
Cella
A cella or naos , is the inner chamber of a temple in classical architecture, or a shop facing the street in domestic Roman architecture...
walls, i.e. at the corners of the cella, other scholars consider the temple all Corinthian and the coins evidence as bad Corinthian columns representation. The real distinction between Corinthian and composite is a Renaissance distinction and not an Ancient Roman one: in Ancient Rome Corinthian and composite were actually part of the same order, but it seems that composite was common on civil buildings and arches
Triumphal arch
A triumphal arch is a monumental structure in the shape of an archway with one or more arched passageways, often designed to span a road. In its simplest form a triumphal arch consists of two massive piers connected by an arch, crowned with a flat entablature or attic on which a statue might be...
exteriors and less common on temples exteriors. Many temples and religious buildings of the Augustan Age were Corinthian, such as the Temple of Mars Ultor, the Maison Carrée
Maison Carrée
The Maison Carrée is an ancient building in Nîmes, southern France; it is one of the best preserved temples to be found anywhere in the territory of the former Roman Empire.- History :...
in Nîmes
Nîmes
Nîmes is the capital of the Gard department in the Languedoc-Roussillon region in southern France. Nîmes has a rich history, dating back to the Roman Empire, and is a popular tourist destination.-History:...
and others
The temple was destroyed by a fire during the reignof Septimius Severus
Septimius Severus
Septimius Severus , also known as Severus, was Roman Emperor from 193 to 211. Severus was born in Leptis Magna in the province of Africa. As a young man he advanced through the customary succession of offices under the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. Severus seized power after the death of...
and then restored: being the coins from the period of Augustus and Hadrian
Hadrian
Hadrian , was Roman Emperor from 117 to 138. He is best known for building Hadrian's Wall, which marked the northern limit of Roman Britain. In Rome, he re-built the Pantheon and constructed the Temple of Venus and Roma. In addition to being emperor, Hadrian was a humanist and was philhellene in...
, there is also a possibility that the order of the temple was changed during the restoration by Septimius Severus.
The entablature
Entablature
An entablature refers to the superstructure of moldings and bands which lie horizontally above columns, resting on their capitals. Entablatures are major elements of classical architecture, and are commonly divided into the architrave , the frieze ,...
and the cornice
Cornice
Cornice molding is generally any horizontal decorative molding that crowns any building or furniture element: the cornice over a door or window, for instance, or the cornice around the edge of a pedestal. A simple cornice may be formed just with a crown molding.The function of the projecting...
found on the site have a modillions and roses structure typical of the Corinthian order
Corinthian order
The Corinthian order is one of the three principal classical orders of ancient Greek and Roman architecture. The other two are the Doric and Ionic. When classical architecture was revived during the Renaissance, two more orders were added to the canon, the Tuscan order and the Composite order...
.
Podium
A podium is a platform that is used to raise something to a short distance above its surroundings. It derives from the Greek πόδι In architecture a building can rest on a large podium. Podia can also be used to raise people, for instance the conductor of an orchestra stands on a podium as do many...
is also uncertain and is a problem still to be solved. It has been supposed that staircase was frontwards in front of the podium and at the sides, or that it was backwards, at the rear of the podium and at the sides
There is no clear evidence about the real position of the staircase of the podium. The backwards position is a reconstruction model based on a hypothesized similarity between this temple and the Temple of Venus Genetrix
Temple of Venus Genetrix
The Temple of Venus Genetrix is a ruined temple in the Forum of Caesar, Rome, dedicated to the Roman goddess Venus Genetrix, the goddess of motherhood and domesticity...
in the Forum of Caesar
Forum of Caesar
The Forum of Caesar, also known as Forum Iulium or Forum Julium, Forum Caesaris, is a forum built by Julius Caesar near the Forum Romanum in Rome in 46 BC.-Construction:...
. This similarity is not proved and is merely based on the fact that during public funeral and Mark Antony's speech the body of Julius Caesar was set on an ivory couch and in a gilded shrine modelled on the Temple of Venus Genetrix. The frontwards position is based on some evidence from the 19th century excavations and the overall impression from the actual site and the ancient coins.
The Rostra
Dio Cassius
Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus , known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was a Roman consul and a noted historian writing in Greek...
reports the attachment of the rostra from the battle of Actium to the podium. They are the so called Rostra ad Divi Iuli, a podium used by orators for official and civil speeches and especially for Imperial funeral orations.
The podium is clearly visible in the coins from the Hadrian period and in the Anaglypha Traiani, but the connection between the rostra podium and the temple structure is not evident.
So also in this case there are many different hypothetical reconstructions of the general arrangement of the buildings of this part of the Roman Forum: according to the first one, the Rostra podium was attached to the Temple of Divus Iulius and is actually the podium of the Temple of Divus Iulius with the rostra (i.e. the prows of warships) attached in frontal position. According to the other reconstruction, the Rostra podium was a separate platform built west of the temple of Divus Iulius and directly in front of it, so the podium of the Temple of Divus Iulius is not the actual platform used by the orators for they speeches and was not the platform used to attach the prows of ships taken at Actium. This separate and independent podium or platform, known as Rostra ad Divi Iuli, is called also Rostra Diocletiani, due to the last arrangement of the building.
Upper decoration of the frontal pediment
By an accurate analysis of the Ancient coins, it is possible to determine two different series of decorations for the upper part of the frontal pediment of the temple. Fire tongues (but the identification is uncertain) decorated all the pediment as old Etruscan-fashioned decoration antefixes (probably something like the decoration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill). The fire tongues seem to recall the flames of the Comet (Star) as they can be seen on the Augustan period coins. Being a star the main decoration of the tympanum, as it can be seen on the Augustan coins, this way the whole temple had the function to be the representation of the Comet (Star) that announced the deification of Julius Caesar and the princedom of Augustus (see Pliny the Elder).A statue at the very vertex of the frontal pediment and two statues at the end corners of the pediment (the usual, classical type of decoration for the pediments of the Roman temples) dated to Hadrian's reign.
Other Augustan Era buildings appear on coins with that particular type of Etruscan-style decoration as for the so-deemed representation of the frontal section of the Curia.
The niche and the altar
The nicheNiche (architecture)
A niche in classical architecture is an exedra or an apse that has been reduced in size, retaining the half-dome heading usual for an apse. Nero's Domus Aurea was the first semi-private dwelling that possessed rooms that were given richly varied floor plans, shaped with niches and exedras;...
and the altar
Altar
An altar is any structure upon which offerings such as sacrifices are made for religious purposes. Altars are usually found at shrines, and they can be located in temples, churches and other places of worship...
in the front of the temple
Temple
A temple is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual activities, such as prayer and sacrifice, or analogous rites. A templum constituted a sacred precinct as defined by a priest, or augur. It has the same root as the word "template," a plan in preparation of the building that was marked out...
podium are also a problem of scarce data interpretation.
They were visible in 29 BC when the temple was dedicated and when the Augustus coins series with the temple of Divus Iulius was struck (from 37 BC to 34 BC).
For the period after the coinage of that coins Series there is no clear evidence. It is sure that at a certain time the altar was removed and the niche filled in and closed with stones, so that a continuous wall was created in the podium of the temple.
This happened, accordin to the various hypotheses, either on 14 BC, at an unknown, probably before the 4th century AD, or after Constantine I
Constantine I
Constantine the Great , also known as Constantine I or Saint Constantine, was Roman Emperor from 306 to 337. Well known for being the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity, Constantine and co-Emperor Licinius issued the Edict of Milan in 313, which proclaimed religious tolerance of all...
or Theodosius I
Theodosius I
Theodosius I , also known as Theodosius the Great, was Roman Emperor from 379 to 395. Theodosius was the last emperor to rule over both the eastern and the western halves of the Roman Empire. During his reign, the Goths secured control of Illyricum after the Gothic War, establishing their homeland...
, due to religious concerns about the pagan
Paganism
Paganism is a blanket term, typically used to refer to non-Abrahamic, indigenous polytheistic religious traditions....
cult of the emperor
Emperor
An emperor is a monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife or a woman who rules in her own right...
.
Since the altar had the right of asylum
Right of asylum
Right of asylum is an ancient juridical notion, under which a person persecuted for political opinions or religious beliefs in his or her own country may be protected by another sovereign authority, a foreign country, or church sanctuaries...
, it seems too strange, that the altar had been removed soon after 14 BC.
Richardson and other scholars hypotesize so, that the filled in niche may have not been the altar of Julius Caesar, but the Puteal Libonis, the old bidental used during the trials at the Tribunal Aurelium (see above) for the public oath. According to C. Hülsen the circular structure visible under the Arch of Augustus
Arch of Augustus, Rome
The Arch of Augustus was the triumphal arch of Augustus in the Roman Forum. Dedicated in 29 BC, it commemorates the great battle of Actium against Antony and Cleopatra...
is not the Puteal Libonis and also other circular elements covered in travertine near the Temple of Caesar and the Arcus Augusti are too recent to belong to the Augustan Era.
Measurements
The temple measured 26.97 m (width) x 30 m (length), corresponding to 91 by 102 Roman feet.The podium or platform area was at least 5.5 m high (18 Roman feet) but only 3.5 m at the front.
The columns, if Corinthian
Corinthian order
The Corinthian order is one of the three principal classical orders of ancient Greek and Roman architecture. The other two are the Doric and Ionic. When classical architecture was revived during the Renaissance, two more orders were added to the canon, the Tuscan order and the Composite order...
, were probably 11.8/12.4 m high, corresponding to 40 or 42 Roman feet.
Materials
- TuffTuffTuff is a type of rock consisting of consolidated volcanic ash ejected from vents during a volcanic eruption. Tuff is sometimes called tufa, particularly when used as construction material, although tufa also refers to a quite different rock. Rock that contains greater than 50% tuff is considered...
(inner parts of the building) - Opus caementicium (inner parts of the building)
- TravertineTravertineTravertine is a form of limestone deposited by mineral springs, especially hot springs. Travertine often has a fibrous or concentric appearance and exists in white, tan, and cream-colored varieties. It is formed by a process of rapid precipitation of calcium carbonate, often at the mouth of a hot...
(walls of the podium and the cella) - MarbleMarbleMarble is a metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, most commonly calcite or dolomite.Geologists use the term "marble" to refer to metamorphosed limestone; however stonemasons use the term more broadly to encompass unmetamorphosed limestone.Marble is commonly used for...
(podium revetement, columns, entablature and pediment of the temple; probably marble from LuniLuni, ItalyLuni is a frazione of the comune of Ortonovo, province of La Spezia, in the easternmost end of the Liguria region of northern Italy...
, i.e. CarraraCarraraCarrara is a city and comune in the province of Massa-Carrara , notable for the white or blue-grey marble quarried there. It is on the Carrione River, some west-northwest of Florence....
marble)
Decoration and position of the remains
Frieze
thumb|267px|Frieze of the [[Tower of the Winds]], AthensIn architecture the frieze is the wide central section part of an entablature and may be plain in the Ionic or Doric order, or decorated with bas-reliefs. Even when neither columns nor pilasters are expressed, on an astylar wall it lies upon...
was a repetitive scroll pattern with female heads, gorgon
Gorgon
In Greek mythology, the Gorgon was a terrifying female creature. The name derives from the Greek word gorgós, which means "dreadful." While descriptions of Gorgons vary across Greek literature, the term commonly refers to any of three sisters who had hair of living, venomous snakes, and a...
s and winged figures. The tympanum
Tympanum (architecture)
In architecture, a tympanum is the semi-circular or triangular decorative wall surface over an entrance, bounded by a lintel and arch. It often contains sculpture or other imagery or ornaments. Most architectural styles include this element....
, at least during the first years, probably had a colossal Star, as it can be seen on the Augustan coins.
The cornice had dentils and beam type modillions (one of the first examples ever in Roman temple architecture) and undersides decorated with narrow rectangular panels carrying flowers, roses, disks, laurel crowns and pine-cones.
Remains of the decorations, among which elements of a Victory
Victoria (mythology)
In ancient Roman religion, Victoria was the personified goddess of victory. She is the Roman equivalent of the Greek goddess Nike, and was associated with Bellona. She was adapted from the Sabine agricultural goddess Vacuna and had a temple on the Palatine Hill...
representation and floral ornaments, are visible on the site or in the Antiquarium Museum in the Roman Forum.
Interior
Augustus used the temple to dedicate offerings from the spoils of war. It included:- a colossal statue of Julius Caesar, veiled as Pontifex MaximusPontifex MaximusThe Pontifex Maximus was the high priest of the College of Pontiffs in ancient Rome. This was the most important position in the ancient Roman religion, open only to patricians until 254 BC, when a plebeian first occupied this post...
, with a star on his head and bearing the lituusLituusThe word lituus originally meant a curved augural staff or a curved war-trumpet in the ancient Latin language. In English it is used with several meanings.-Roman ritual wand:...
augural staff in his right hand; when the doors of the temple were left open, it was possible to clearly see the statue from the Roman Forum main square. - in the cella of the temple, a famous painting by ApellesApellesApelles of Kos was a renowned painter of ancient Greece. Pliny the Elder, to whom we owe much of our knowledge of this artist rated him superior to preceding and subsequent artists...
of Venus Anadyomene is sure. During the princedom of Nero the painting by Apelles deteriorated and it could not be restored. So the emperor substituted for it another by Dorotheus. - another painting by Apelles, depicting the Dioscuri with Victoria.
External links
- Temple of Caesar (General Description and Photo Gallery)
- UCLA Digital Roman Forum page for the "Iulius Divus, Aedes" Archaeological discussion and 3D reconstruction
- UCLA Digital Roman Forum page for the "Rostra Diocletiani" i.e. "Rostra ad Divi Iuli" Archaeological discussion and 3D reconstruction
- Stanford University Forma Urbis Romae: slabs of the Forum Area with Temple of Divus Iulius (the Temple of Divus Iulius is a missing part visible only as a simple plan out of the slabs)
