The Sociological Imagination
Encyclopedia
The Sociological Imagination is a book by American sociologist C. Wright Mills
, first published by Oxford University Press
in 1959 and still in print.
Mills felt that the central task for sociology and sociologists was to find (and articulate) the connections between the particular social environments of individuals (also known as "milieu
") and the wider social and historical forces in which they are enmeshed. This approach challenges a structural functionalist approach to sociology, as it opens new positions for the individual to inhabit with regard to the larger social structure. Individual function that reproduces larger social structure is only one of many possible roles, and is not necessarily the most important. Mills also wrote of the danger of malaise, which he saw as inextricably embedded in the creation and maintenance of modern societies. This led him to question whether individuals exist in modern societies in the sense that "individual" is commonly understood (Mills, 1959, 7-12).
In writing The Sociological Imagination, Mills was trying to reconcile two varying, abstract conceptions of social reality - the "individual" and "society" - and thereby challenged the dominant sociological discourse to define some of its most basic terms and be forthright about the premises behind its definitions. He began the project of reconciliation and challenge with critiques of "grand theory" and "abstracted empiricism," outlining and criticizing their use in the current sociology of the day.
.
In The Social System, Parsons describes the nature of the structure of society and the creation and maintenance of a culture through the socialization of individuals. Mills criticizes this tendency in sociology on several grounds. He argues for a more heterogeneous form of society in that he challenges the extent to which a single uniformity of society is indeed possible (Mills, 1959, 26-30).
Brewer (2004) sees such a work as The Sociological Imagination as an extension of Mills' other works on power and social stratification, i.e. The Power Elite and White Collar.
According to Mills, what grand theorists call value orientation could in actuality be a form of domination and thereby may simply be a form of legitimation (Mills, 1959, 33-36).
That he argues that society and its cultural symbols cannot be seen as self-determining and cannot be derived without reference to individuals and their consciousness. All power according to Parsons is based on a system of beliefs enforced by society, writes Mills. In this he criticizes Parsons for his view in terms of historical and social change and diversity (Mills, 1959, 40-46).
He thereby criticizes the means by which a social order can be derived without observation (Mills, 1959, 46-48).
This can be seen as a reaction to the plethora of social research being developed from about the time of the Second World War. This can thereby be seen as much a criticism by Brewer that Mills may have been critical of the research being conducted and sponsored by the American government(Brewer,2004).
As such Mills (1959) criticizes the methodological inhibition which he saw as characteristic of what he called abstract empiricism. In this he can be seen criticizing the work of Paul F. Lazarfield who conceives of Sociology not as a discipline but as a methodological tool (Mills, 1959, 55-59).
He argues that the problem of such social research is that there may be a tendency towards “psychologism”, which explains human behavior on the individual level without reference to the social context. This, he argues, may lead to the separation of research from theory.
He then writes of the construction of milieu in relation to social research and how both theory and research are related (Mills, 1959, 65-68).
He argues that the nature of society is continuous with historical reality. In doing so, Mills writes of the importance of the empirical adequacy of theoretical frameworks. He also writes of the notion of a unified social sciences. This he believes is not a conscious effort but is a result of the historical problem-based discourses out of which the disciplines developed, in which the divisions between the disciplines become increasingly fluid (Mills, 1959, 136-140). Thus Mills (1959) sets out what he believed to be a problem-based approach to his conception of social sciences (140-142).
This is somewhat appropriate given that the nature of Mills' work patterned around the biography of individuals, their historical actions and the relation to the wider society in terms of structure, in as much as Mills' own life has been seen by others as illustrative of his conception of Sociology. He hoped to reconcile the issues of individuals with the problems facing society, thereby framing individuals' problems in social, political, and historical reality (Brewer, 2004, 320).
Thus, he can be seen as a trying to create a three-dimensional view of society and, according to Brewer (2004), attempted to break down the divide between the public and the private realms of society, something characteristic of Sociology at the time. In this, he was viewing society as simultaneously macroscopic and microscopic in nature whilst trying to merge both historical and contemporary social realities (Brewer, 2004, 320-321).
His work was widely criticized due to what were perceived critical attacks on the discipline. This can be seen in his writings where he criticizes both the “methodological inhibition” of what he refers to as abstract empiricism i.e. the work of Paul F. Lazarsfield and to what he refers to as the “fetishisation of concepts” in the works of those such as Talcott Parsons in which Mills criticized "grand theory" and the positivism
of structural functionalism (Brewer, 2004, 322-324).
As such, his work was not well received. Both in Britain and in America he came under criticism. In Britain his work was criticized for the extent to which he was seen to attack empirical Sociology which was then common in Britain at the time. In America, his criticism of structural functionalism and of its accompanying critiques of power and stratification made him somewhat subject to severe criticism (Brewer, 2004, 328-330).
His work can also be seen as reaction to cold war America and the radicalism and disengagement with establishment sociology. It can also, however, be seen as return by those such as Brewer to a tradition of “social reformism” as well as a response to the professionalization of the discipline (Brewer, 2005, 663-665).
His conception of the spatialization of the discipline can be seen in the works of Georg Simmel
, in his idea of social space and social configurations of space. Thus, Brewer (2005) seems to see him returning the discipline to the configuration of biography and self in the configuration of social space. This can also be seen in the social constructionism
and the importance of space and time in the work of Anthony Giddens
. This is most reminiscent of “the templates of the self” as seen as the understanding of the self in relation to social space as written by Erving Goffman
and his conception of “frontstage” and “backstage”. Thus the work of Mills can be seen as an illustrative example in terms of his biography of the conception of social space and the importance of narrative (Brewer, 2005, 665-667).
His life is therefore seen as having an impact on his construction of self. This can be seen as a reflection therefore of his background and the importance he placed on independence, self-reliance, and individualism in the creation of autonomy and what others would refer to as the “Occupational role of the loner.” This “outsider mentality,” as referred to by Brewer (2005), can be seen as form of personal survival whereby Mills could thereby distance himself from personal and professional criticism. Thus, the Sociological Imagination is seen by many as a connection between Mills’ life and work (Brewer, 2005, 668-671).
”. In his speech to the American Sociological Association he speaks of the importance of public discourse and the importance of Sociology as an agent of historical change (Burawoy, 2005, 259-261).
This can also be seen in his work Ethnography Unbound, in which he refers to his Extended case method of ethnography and relates C. Wright Mills work in his idea of theory construction as the relation of “the personal troubles of the milieu” to “the public issues of the social structure” (C. Wright Mills, in Burawoy, 1991, 6).
C. Wright Mills
Charles Wright Mills was an American sociologist. Mills is best remembered for his 1959 book The Sociological Imagination in which he lays out a view of the proper relationship between biography and history, theory and method in sociological scholarship...
, first published by Oxford University Press
Oxford University Press
Oxford University Press is the largest university press in the world. It is a department of the University of Oxford and is governed by a group of 15 academics appointed by the Vice-Chancellor known as the Delegates of the Press. They are headed by the Secretary to the Delegates, who serves as...
in 1959 and still in print.
Mills felt that the central task for sociology and sociologists was to find (and articulate) the connections between the particular social environments of individuals (also known as "milieu
Social environment
The social environment of an individual, also called social context or milieu, is the culture that s/he was educated or lives in, and the people and institutions with whom the person interacts....
") and the wider social and historical forces in which they are enmeshed. This approach challenges a structural functionalist approach to sociology, as it opens new positions for the individual to inhabit with regard to the larger social structure. Individual function that reproduces larger social structure is only one of many possible roles, and is not necessarily the most important. Mills also wrote of the danger of malaise, which he saw as inextricably embedded in the creation and maintenance of modern societies. This led him to question whether individuals exist in modern societies in the sense that "individual" is commonly understood (Mills, 1959, 7-12).
In writing The Sociological Imagination, Mills was trying to reconcile two varying, abstract conceptions of social reality - the "individual" and "society" - and thereby challenged the dominant sociological discourse to define some of its most basic terms and be forthright about the premises behind its definitions. He began the project of reconciliation and challenge with critiques of "grand theory" and "abstracted empiricism," outlining and criticizing their use in the current sociology of the day.
Grand Theory
In chapter two of his work, Mills (1959) seems to be criticizing Parsonian Sociology. In this he directly addresses The Social System, written by Talcott ParsonsTalcott Parsons
Talcott Parsons was an American sociologist who served on the faculty of Harvard University from 1927 to 1973....
.
In The Social System, Parsons describes the nature of the structure of society and the creation and maintenance of a culture through the socialization of individuals. Mills criticizes this tendency in sociology on several grounds. He argues for a more heterogeneous form of society in that he challenges the extent to which a single uniformity of society is indeed possible (Mills, 1959, 26-30).
Social order
Mills (1959) criticizes the Parsonian formulation of social order, particularly the idea that social order can indeed be seen as a whole. He writes that every individual cannot simply be fully integrated into society and internalize all its cultural forms. Furthermore, such domination may be seen as a further extension of power and social stratification.Brewer (2004) sees such a work as The Sociological Imagination as an extension of Mills' other works on power and social stratification, i.e. The Power Elite and White Collar.
According to Mills, what grand theorists call value orientation could in actuality be a form of domination and thereby may simply be a form of legitimation (Mills, 1959, 33-36).
Role of social theory
He further criticizes Parsonian Sociology on its ability to theorize as a form of pure abstraction that society can be understood irrespective of its historical and contextual nature without observation.That he argues that society and its cultural symbols cannot be seen as self-determining and cannot be derived without reference to individuals and their consciousness. All power according to Parsons is based on a system of beliefs enforced by society, writes Mills. In this he criticizes Parsons for his view in terms of historical and social change and diversity (Mills, 1959, 40-46).
He thereby criticizes the means by which a social order can be derived without observation (Mills, 1959, 46-48).
Abstracted Empiricism
In his third chapter, Mills (1959) can be seen to criticize the empirical methods of social research which he saw as evident at the time in the conception of data and the handling of methodological tools.This can be seen as a reaction to the plethora of social research being developed from about the time of the Second World War. This can thereby be seen as much a criticism by Brewer that Mills may have been critical of the research being conducted and sponsored by the American government(Brewer,2004).
As such Mills (1959) criticizes the methodological inhibition which he saw as characteristic of what he called abstract empiricism. In this he can be seen criticizing the work of Paul F. Lazarfield who conceives of Sociology not as a discipline but as a methodological tool (Mills, 1959, 55-59).
He argues that the problem of such social research is that there may be a tendency towards “psychologism”, which explains human behavior on the individual level without reference to the social context. This, he argues, may lead to the separation of research from theory.
He then writes of the construction of milieu in relation to social research and how both theory and research are related (Mills, 1959, 65-68).
The Human variety
In chapter seven of his work, Mills (1959) sets out what is thought to be his vision of Sociology. He writes of the need to integrate the social, biographical, and historical versions of reality in which individuals construct their social milieus with reference to the wider society (Mills, 1959, 132-134).He argues that the nature of society is continuous with historical reality. In doing so, Mills writes of the importance of the empirical adequacy of theoretical frameworks. He also writes of the notion of a unified social sciences. This he believes is not a conscious effort but is a result of the historical problem-based discourses out of which the disciplines developed, in which the divisions between the disciplines become increasingly fluid (Mills, 1959, 136-140). Thus Mills (1959) sets out what he believed to be a problem-based approach to his conception of social sciences (140-142).
Reaction to The Sociological Imagination
Mills' work was widely read in its time and the Sociological Imagination is still one of the most widely read tracts of sociology and a staple of undergraduate sociology courses. His work was not well received at the time, which can be seen as a result of Mills' professional and personal reputation (Brewer, 2004, 317).This is somewhat appropriate given that the nature of Mills' work patterned around the biography of individuals, their historical actions and the relation to the wider society in terms of structure, in as much as Mills' own life has been seen by others as illustrative of his conception of Sociology. He hoped to reconcile the issues of individuals with the problems facing society, thereby framing individuals' problems in social, political, and historical reality (Brewer, 2004, 320).
Thus, he can be seen as a trying to create a three-dimensional view of society and, according to Brewer (2004), attempted to break down the divide between the public and the private realms of society, something characteristic of Sociology at the time. In this, he was viewing society as simultaneously macroscopic and microscopic in nature whilst trying to merge both historical and contemporary social realities (Brewer, 2004, 320-321).
His work was widely criticized due to what were perceived critical attacks on the discipline. This can be seen in his writings where he criticizes both the “methodological inhibition” of what he refers to as abstract empiricism i.e. the work of Paul F. Lazarsfield and to what he refers to as the “fetishisation of concepts” in the works of those such as Talcott Parsons in which Mills criticized "grand theory" and the positivism
Positivism
Positivism is a a view of scientific methods and a philosophical approach, theory, or system based on the view that, in the social as well as natural sciences, sensory experiences and their logical and mathematical treatment are together the exclusive source of all worthwhile information....
of structural functionalism (Brewer, 2004, 322-324).
The political nature of Mills' work
This exacerbated what were seen as professional disagreements which were then ongoing with other professionals in the discipline. In particular his criticism of abstracted empiricism was seen in conjunction to his criticisms of both state sponsored research and the political policies of the Cold War American government (Brewer, 2004, 326-328).As such, his work was not well received. Both in Britain and in America he came under criticism. In Britain his work was criticized for the extent to which he was seen to attack empirical Sociology which was then common in Britain at the time. In America, his criticism of structural functionalism and of its accompanying critiques of power and stratification made him somewhat subject to severe criticism (Brewer, 2004, 328-330).
The Personality of C. Wright Mills
The reception of C. Wright Mills can now be seen as somewhat illustrative of Mills' personality. In his work, we can the “space of selfhood” which Mills argued individuals connect individuals with society as a whole. Thus, of personalized experiences being used to link public discourses he can thereby be seen to mark a biographical turn in post-structuralist Sociology (Brewer, 2005, 661-663).His work can also be seen as reaction to cold war America and the radicalism and disengagement with establishment sociology. It can also, however, be seen as return by those such as Brewer to a tradition of “social reformism” as well as a response to the professionalization of the discipline (Brewer, 2005, 663-665).
His conception of the spatialization of the discipline can be seen in the works of Georg Simmel
Georg Simmel
Georg Simmel was a major German sociologist, philosopher, and critic.Simmel was one of the first generation of German sociologists: his neo-Kantian approach laid the foundations for sociological antipositivism, asking 'What is society?' in a direct allusion to Kant's question 'What is nature?',...
, in his idea of social space and social configurations of space. Thus, Brewer (2005) seems to see him returning the discipline to the configuration of biography and self in the configuration of social space. This can also be seen in the social constructionism
Social constructionism
Social constructionism and social constructivism are sociological theories of knowledge that consider how social phenomena or objects of consciousness develop in social contexts. A social construction is a concept or practice that is the construct of a particular group...
and the importance of space and time in the work of Anthony Giddens
Anthony Giddens
Anthony Giddens, Baron Giddens is a British sociologist who is known for his theory of structuration and his holistic view of modern societies. He is considered to be one of the most prominent modern contributors in the field of sociology, the author of at least 34 books, published in at least 29...
. This is most reminiscent of “the templates of the self” as seen as the understanding of the self in relation to social space as written by Erving Goffman
Erving Goffman
Erving Goffman was a Canadian-born sociologist and writer.The 73rd president of American Sociological Association, Goffman's greatest contribution to social theory is his study of symbolic interaction in the form of dramaturgical perspective that began with his 1959 book The Presentation of Self...
and his conception of “frontstage” and “backstage”. Thus the work of Mills can be seen as an illustrative example in terms of his biography of the conception of social space and the importance of narrative (Brewer, 2005, 665-667).
His life is therefore seen as having an impact on his construction of self. This can be seen as a reflection therefore of his background and the importance he placed on independence, self-reliance, and individualism in the creation of autonomy and what others would refer to as the “Occupational role of the loner.” This “outsider mentality,” as referred to by Brewer (2005), can be seen as form of personal survival whereby Mills could thereby distance himself from personal and professional criticism. Thus, the Sociological Imagination is seen by many as a connection between Mills’ life and work (Brewer, 2005, 668-671).
Legacy of Mills
The work of C. Wright Mills can be seen as extended in the work of Michael Burawoy and his conception of “Public sociologyPublic sociology
Public sociology is an approach to the discipline which seeks to transcend the academy and engage wider audiences. Rather than being defined by a particular method, theory, or set of political values, public sociology may be seen as a style of sociology, a way of writing and a form of intellectual...
”. In his speech to the American Sociological Association he speaks of the importance of public discourse and the importance of Sociology as an agent of historical change (Burawoy, 2005, 259-261).
This can also be seen in his work Ethnography Unbound, in which he refers to his Extended case method of ethnography and relates C. Wright Mills work in his idea of theory construction as the relation of “the personal troubles of the milieu” to “the public issues of the social structure” (C. Wright Mills, in Burawoy, 1991, 6).
External links
- C.Wright Mills, The Sociological Imagination Excerpts
- C.Wright Mills, On Intellectual Craftsmanship Appendix to The Sociological Imagination
See also
- sociological imaginationSociological imaginationThe term sociological imagination was coined by the American sociologist C. Wright Mills in 1959, to describe the type of insight offered by the discipline of sociology...
- C. Wright MillsC. Wright MillsCharles Wright Mills was an American sociologist. Mills is best remembered for his 1959 book The Sociological Imagination in which he lays out a view of the proper relationship between biography and history, theory and method in sociological scholarship...
- The Power EliteThe Power EliteThe Power Elite is a book written by the sociologist, C. Wright Mills, in 1956. In it Mills calls attention to the interwoven interests of the leaders of the military, corporate, and political elements of society and suggests that the ordinary citizen is a relatively powerless subject of...
- Power ElitePower eliteA power elite or The Grand Elite, in political and sociological theory, is a small group of people who control a disproportionate amount of wealth, privilege, and access to decision-making of global consequence. The term was coined by C...
- C.Wright Mills, On Intellectual Craftsmanship from The Sociological Imagination