The Soldier and the State
Encyclopedia
The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations is a 1957 book written by political scientist Samuel P. Huntington
. In the book, Huntington advances the theory of objective civilian control
, according to which the optimal means of asserting control over the armed forces is to professionalize them. This is in contrast to subjective control, which involves placing legal and institutional restrictions on the military's autonomy.
Outline Summary
This early Civil-military relations
book is divided into three major parts: (1) theory and history of officership and the military profession; (2) a history of the military profession and civil-military relations in the United States up to World War II; (3) the same for the period of 1940 up to the publication of the book in the mid 1950s.
Part I: “Military Institutions and the State: Theoretical and Historical Perspectives”
In the first chapter Huntington provides his definition of a profession
and an explanation for why the modern military officer corps represents a profession. He states that the “specialized expertise of the military officer” is “best summed up in Harold Lasswell
’s phrase ‘the management of violence.’”
In the 1950s, when Huntington’s book was written, the U.S. Army was draft-based and there was no institutional focus on the development of a professional non-commissioned officer
(NCO) corps and Huntington declares the enlisted men to be “specialists in the application of violence, not the management of violence.” Since the move to an all-volunteer force, the U.S. has military has placed great emphasis on the professional development and retention of career NCOs as ‘the backbone of the Army.” It would be interesting to analyze the modern U.S. NCOs corps against Huntington’s criteria for a profession.
Chapter two outlines the “rise of the military profession in Western society.” He describes that the officer corps consisted of mercenaries from the breakdown of feudalism until their replacement by aristocratic officers after the Thirty Years' War
(1618-1648) and why neither the mercenaries nor aristocrats were professionals under his definition. Finally in the 19th century the idea of the aristocratic military genius was replaced by the Prussian reliance upon “average men succeeding by superior education, organization and experience.”
Chapter three discusses the military mind and military professional ethic. He notes misconceptions regarding the military mind and seeks "to elaborate the professional military ethic with respect to (1) basic values and perspectives, (2) national military policy, (3) the relation of the military to the state." He summarizes the ethic as "conversative realism....It exalts obedience as the highest virtue of military men. The military ethic is thus pessimistic, collectivist, historically inclined, power-oriented, nationalistic, militaristic, pacificist, and instrumentalist in its view of the military profession."
Chapter four is a discussion of civil-military relations in theory. He defines subjective civilian control (where military professionalism is reduced due to co-opting of the military by civilian political groups) and objective civilian control - where military professional thrives as it is far removed from politics. He describes the effect of four ideologies (liberalism, fascism
, Marxism
, conservatism) on military professionalism and civilian control.
Chapter five analyzes the military professional in the German and Japanese societies where it became dominant as militarism
.
Part II: “Military Power in America: The Historical Experience: 1789-1940”
Chapter six describes the military in the traditional liberal American political context.
Chapter seven explains the structure of civil-military relations provided by the conservative U.S. constitution and civil control of the military.
Chapter eight outlines the American military tradition up to the Civil War.
Chapter nine is “The Creation of the American Military Profession”. It outlines the contributions of key individuals and institutions and describes the origins of the American military mind.
Chapter ten covers the period 1890 to 1920, including “Neo-Hamiltonism”, Alfred Mahan and Leonard Wood
.
Chapter eleven covers interwar civil-military relations and the military ethic of the period.
Part III: “The Crisis of American Civil-Military Relations 1940-1955”
Chapter twelve covers World War II.
Chapter thirteen outlines civil-military relations in the first decade after World War II.
Chapter fourteen is “The Political Roles of the Joint Chiefs.”
Chapter fifteen describes the impact of the separation of powers on civil-military relations during the Cold War.
Chapter sixteen analyzes the Cold War structure of the Defense Department in the context of civil-military relations.
Chapter seventeen discusses the challenges faced by the heightened ongoing defense needs of the Cold War versus the tradition of American liberalism and the move “Towards a New Equilibrium” between the two.
Samuel P. Huntington
Samuel Phillips Huntington was an influential American political scientist who wrote highly-regarded books in a half-dozen sub-fields of political science, starting in 1957...
. In the book, Huntington advances the theory of objective civilian control
Civilian control of the military
Civilian control of the military is a doctrine in military and political science that places ultimate responsibility for a country's strategic decision-making in the hands of the civilian political leadership, rather than professional military officers. One author, paraphrasing Samuel P...
, according to which the optimal means of asserting control over the armed forces is to professionalize them. This is in contrast to subjective control, which involves placing legal and institutional restrictions on the military's autonomy.
Outline Summary
This early Civil-military relations
Civil-military relations
Civil–military relations describes the relationship between civil society as a whole and the military organization or organizations established to protect it. More narrowly, it describes the relationship between the civil authority of a given society and its military authority...
book is divided into three major parts: (1) theory and history of officership and the military profession; (2) a history of the military profession and civil-military relations in the United States up to World War II; (3) the same for the period of 1940 up to the publication of the book in the mid 1950s.
Part I: “Military Institutions and the State: Theoretical and Historical Perspectives”
In the first chapter Huntington provides his definition of a profession
Profession
A profession is a vocation founded upon specialized educational training, the purpose of which is to supply disinterested counsel and service to others, for a direct and definite compensation, wholly apart from expectation of other business gain....
and an explanation for why the modern military officer corps represents a profession. He states that the “specialized expertise of the military officer” is “best summed up in Harold Lasswell
Harold Lasswell
Harold Dwight Lasswell was a leading American political scientist and communications theorist. He was a member of the Chicago school of sociology and was a professor at Yale University in law. He was a President of the American Political Science Association and World Academy of Art and Science...
’s phrase ‘the management of violence.’”
In the 1950s, when Huntington’s book was written, the U.S. Army was draft-based and there was no institutional focus on the development of a professional non-commissioned officer
Non-commissioned officer
A non-commissioned officer , called a sub-officer in some countries, is a military officer who has not been given a commission...
(NCO) corps and Huntington declares the enlisted men to be “specialists in the application of violence, not the management of violence.” Since the move to an all-volunteer force, the U.S. has military has placed great emphasis on the professional development and retention of career NCOs as ‘the backbone of the Army.” It would be interesting to analyze the modern U.S. NCOs corps against Huntington’s criteria for a profession.
Chapter two outlines the “rise of the military profession in Western society.” He describes that the officer corps consisted of mercenaries from the breakdown of feudalism until their replacement by aristocratic officers after the Thirty Years' War
Thirty Years' War
The Thirty Years' War was fought primarily in what is now Germany, and at various points involved most countries in Europe. It was one of the most destructive conflicts in European history....
(1618-1648) and why neither the mercenaries nor aristocrats were professionals under his definition. Finally in the 19th century the idea of the aristocratic military genius was replaced by the Prussian reliance upon “average men succeeding by superior education, organization and experience.”
Chapter three discusses the military mind and military professional ethic. He notes misconceptions regarding the military mind and seeks "to elaborate the professional military ethic with respect to (1) basic values and perspectives, (2) national military policy, (3) the relation of the military to the state." He summarizes the ethic as "conversative realism....It exalts obedience as the highest virtue of military men. The military ethic is thus pessimistic, collectivist, historically inclined, power-oriented, nationalistic, militaristic, pacificist, and instrumentalist in its view of the military profession."
Chapter four is a discussion of civil-military relations in theory. He defines subjective civilian control (where military professionalism is reduced due to co-opting of the military by civilian political groups) and objective civilian control - where military professional thrives as it is far removed from politics. He describes the effect of four ideologies (liberalism, fascism
Fascism
Fascism is a radical authoritarian nationalist political ideology. Fascists seek to rejuvenate their nation based on commitment to the national community as an organic entity, in which individuals are bound together in national identity by suprapersonal connections of ancestry, culture, and blood...
, Marxism
Marxism
Marxism is an economic and sociopolitical worldview and method of socioeconomic inquiry that centers upon a materialist interpretation of history, a dialectical view of social change, and an analysis and critique of the development of capitalism. Marxism was pioneered in the early to mid 19th...
, conservatism) on military professionalism and civilian control.
Chapter five analyzes the military professional in the German and Japanese societies where it became dominant as militarism
Militarism
Militarism is defined as: the belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests....
.
Part II: “Military Power in America: The Historical Experience: 1789-1940”
Chapter six describes the military in the traditional liberal American political context.
Chapter seven explains the structure of civil-military relations provided by the conservative U.S. constitution and civil control of the military.
Chapter eight outlines the American military tradition up to the Civil War.
Chapter nine is “The Creation of the American Military Profession”. It outlines the contributions of key individuals and institutions and describes the origins of the American military mind.
Chapter ten covers the period 1890 to 1920, including “Neo-Hamiltonism”, Alfred Mahan and Leonard Wood
Leonard Wood
Leonard Wood was a physician who served as the Chief of Staff of the United States Army, Military Governor of Cuba and Governor General of the Philippines. Early in his military career, he received the Medal of Honor. Wood also holds officer service #2 in the Regular Army...
.
Chapter eleven covers interwar civil-military relations and the military ethic of the period.
Part III: “The Crisis of American Civil-Military Relations 1940-1955”
Chapter twelve covers World War II.
Chapter thirteen outlines civil-military relations in the first decade after World War II.
Chapter fourteen is “The Political Roles of the Joint Chiefs.”
Chapter fifteen describes the impact of the separation of powers on civil-military relations during the Cold War.
Chapter sixteen analyzes the Cold War structure of the Defense Department in the context of civil-military relations.
Chapter seventeen discusses the challenges faced by the heightened ongoing defense needs of the Cold War versus the tradition of American liberalism and the move “Towards a New Equilibrium” between the two.