Thermidorian Reaction
Encyclopedia
French Revolution
The French Revolution , sometimes distinguished as the 'Great French Revolution' , was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France and Europe. The absolute monarchy that had ruled France for centuries collapsed in three years...
against the excesses of the Reign of Terror
Reign of Terror
The Reign of Terror , also known simply as The Terror , was a period of violence that occurred after the onset of the French Revolution, incited by conflict between rival political factions, the Girondins and the Jacobins, and marked by mass executions of "enemies of...
. It was triggered by a vote of the Committee of Public Safety
Committee of Public Safety
The Committee of Public Safety , created in April 1793 by the National Convention and then restructured in July 1793, formed the de facto executive government in France during the Reign of Terror , a stage of the French Revolution...
to execute Maximilien Robespierre
Maximilien Robespierre
Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre is one of the best-known and most influential figures of the French Revolution. He largely dominated the Committee of Public Safety and was instrumental in the period of the Revolution commonly known as the Reign of Terror, which ended with his...
, Antoine Louis Léon de Saint-Just de Richebourg and several other leading members of the Terror. This ended the most radical phase of the French Revolution.
The name Thermidorian refers to 9 Thermidor
Thermidor
Thermidor was the eleventh month in the French Republican Calendar. The month was named after the French word thermal which comes from the Greek word "thermos" which means heat....
Year II (27 July 1794), the date according to the French Revolutionary Calendar
French Republican Calendar
The French Republican Calendar or French Revolutionary Calendar was a calendar created and implemented during the French Revolution, and used by the French government for about 12 years from late 1793 to 1805, and for 18 days by the Paris Commune in 1871...
when Robespierre and other radical revolutionaries came under concerted attack in the National Convention
National Convention
During the French Revolution, the National Convention or Convention, in France, comprised the constitutional and legislative assembly which sat from 20 September 1792 to 26 October 1795 . It held executive power in France during the first years of the French First Republic...
. Thermidorian Reaction also refers to the remaining period until the National Convention was superseded by the Directory
French Directory
The Directory was a body of five Directors that held executive power in France following the Convention and preceding the Consulate...
; this is also sometimes called the era of the Thermidorian Convention. Prominent figures of Thermidor include Paul Barras
Paul François Jean Nicolas, vicomte de Barras
Paul François Jean Nicolas, vicomte de Barras was a French politician of the French Revolution, and the main executive leader of the Directory regime of 1795–1799.-Early life:...
, Jean Lambert Tallien and Joseph Fouché
Joseph Fouché
Joseph Fouché, 1st Duc d'Otrante was a French statesman and Minister of Police under Napoleon Bonaparte. In English texts his title is often translated as Duke of Otranto.-Youth:Fouché was born in Le Pellerin, a small village near Nantes...
.
Background
Thermidor represents the final throes of the Reign of TerrorReign of Terror
The Reign of Terror , also known simply as The Terror , was a period of violence that occurred after the onset of the French Revolution, incited by conflict between rival political factions, the Girondins and the Jacobins, and marked by mass executions of "enemies of...
. With Robespierre the sole remaining strong man of the Revolution (following the assassination of Jean-Paul Marat
Jean-Paul Marat
Jean-Paul Marat , born in the Principality of Neuchâtel, was a physician, political theorist, and scientist best known for his career in France as a radical journalist and politician during the French Revolution...
, and the executions of Georges Danton
Georges Danton
Georges Jacques Danton was leading figure in the early stages of the French Revolution and the first President of the Committee of Public Safety. Danton's role in the onset of the Revolution has been disputed; many historians describe him as "the chief force in theoverthrow of the monarchy and the...
and Jacques Hébert
Jacques Hébert
Jacques René Hébert was a French journalist, and the founder and editor of the extreme radical newspaper Le Père Duchesne during the French Revolution...
), his apparently total grasp on power was, in fact, increasingly illusory, especially insofar as he seemed to have support from factions to his right
Right-wing politics
In politics, Right, right-wing and rightist generally refer to support for a hierarchical society justified on the basis of an appeal to natural law or tradition. To varying degrees, the Right rejects the egalitarian objectives of left-wing politics, claiming that the imposition of equality is...
. His only real political power at this time lay in the Jacobin Club
Jacobin Club
The Jacobin Club was the most famous and influential political club in the development of the French Revolution, so-named because of the Dominican convent where they met, located in the Rue St. Jacques , Paris. The club originated as the Club Benthorn, formed at Versailles from a group of Breton...
, which had extended itself beyond the borders of Paris and into the country as a network of "Popular Societies". His tight personal control of the military and his distrust of military might and of banks, along with his opposition to corrupt individuals in government, made Robespierre the subject of a number of conspiracies. The conspiracies came together on 9 Thermidor (27 July) when members of the national bodies of the revolutionary government arrested Robespierre as well as the leaders of the Paris city government.
Conspiratorial groups
Not all of the conspiratorial groupings were ideological in motivation; many who conspired against Robespierre did so for strong practical and personal reasons, most notably self-preservation. The surviving DantonistsGeorges Danton
Georges Jacques Danton was leading figure in the early stages of the French Revolution and the first President of the Committee of Public Safety. Danton's role in the onset of the Revolution has been disputed; many historians describe him as "the chief force in theoverthrow of the monarchy and the...
, such as Merlin de Thionville
Antoine Christophe Merlin
Antoine Christophe Merlin was a member of several legislative bodies during the era of the French Revolution. He is usually called "Merlin de Thionville" to distinguish him from Philippe-Antoine Merlin de Douai.He was born at Thionville, the son of a procureur in the bailliage of Thionville...
for example, wanted revenge for the death of Danton
Georges Danton
Georges Jacques Danton was leading figure in the early stages of the French Revolution and the first President of the Committee of Public Safety. Danton's role in the onset of the Revolution has been disputed; many historians describe him as "the chief force in theoverthrow of the monarchy and the...
and, more importantly, to protect their own heads.
The Left
Left-wing politics
In politics, Left, left-wing and leftist generally refer to support for social change to create a more egalitarian society...
were opposed to Robespierre on the grounds that he rejected atheism
Atheism
Atheism is, in a broad sense, the rejection of belief in the existence of deities. In a narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there are no deities...
and was not sufficiently radical.
The prime mover, however, for the events of 9 Thermidor (27 July) was a Montagnard
The Mountain
The Mountain refers in the context of the history of the French Revolution to a political group, whose members, called Montagnards, sat on the highest benches in the Assembly...
conspiracy, led by Jean Lambert Tallien and Bourdon de l'Oise, which was gradually coalescing, and was to come to pass at the time when the Montagnards had finally swayed the deputies of the Right over to their side. (Robespierre and Saint-Just were, themselves, Montagnards.) Some authors argue that the then leftist Joseph Fouché
Joseph Fouché
Joseph Fouché, 1st Duc d'Otrante was a French statesman and Minister of Police under Napoleon Bonaparte. In English texts his title is often translated as Duke of Otranto.-Youth:Fouché was born in Le Pellerin, a small village near Nantes...
played a large role in the conspiracy. Fouché was likely to be convicted and executed for treason and atheism, since Robespierre himself was about to denounce him in a speech to the Convention, which would have been delivered the day after the coup d'état (28 July). Dwelling in the shadows, he made great efforts to convince the main surviving leftists and moderates that they were meant to be the next victims of Robespierre's dictatorship, thus uniting them against Robespierre, and by those means saving his own life.
Events
Paris
Paris is the capital and largest city in France, situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region...
, Saint-Just was in the midst of reading a report to the Committee of Public Safety when he was interrupted by Tallien, who impugned Saint-Just and then went on to denounce the tyranny of Robespierre. The attack was taken up by Billaud-Varenne, and Saint-Just's typical eloquence fled him, leaving him subject to a withering verbal assault until Robespierre leapt to the defense of Saint-Just and himself. Cries went up of 'Down with the tyrant! Arrest him!' Robespierre then made his appeal to the deputies of the Right, "Deputies of the Right, men of honour, men of virtue, give me the floor, since the assassins will not." However, the Right was unmoved, and an order was made to arrest Robespierre and his followers.
Troops from the Commune arrived to liberate the prisoners. The Commune troops, under General Coffinhal, then marched against the Convention itself. The Convention responded by ordering troops of its own under Paul Barras
Paul François Jean Nicolas, vicomte de Barras
Paul François Jean Nicolas, vicomte de Barras was a French politician of the French Revolution, and the main executive leader of the Directory regime of 1795–1799.-Early life:...
to be called out. When the Commune's troops heard the news of this, order began to break down, and Hanriot
François Hanriot
François Hanriot was a French leader and street orator of the Revolution. He played a vital role in the Insurrection and subsequently the fall of the Girondins.-Early years:...
ordered his remaining troops to withdraw to the Hôtel de Ville
Hôtel de Ville, Paris
The Hôtel de Ville |City Hall]]) in :Paris, France, is the building housing the City of Paris's administration. Standing on the place de l'Hôtel de Ville in the city's IVe arrondissement, it has been the location of the municipality of Paris since 1357...
. Robespierre and his supporters also gathered at the Hôtel de Ville. The Convention declared them to be outlaws, meaning that upon verification the fugitives could be executed within 24 hours without a trial. As the night went on the Commune forces at the Hôtel de Ville deserted until none of them remained. The Convention troops under Barras approached the Hôtel around 2:00 am on 28 July. As they came, Robespierre's brother Augustin
Augustin Robespierre
Augustin Bon Joseph de Robespierre was the younger brother of French Revolutionary leader, Maximilien Robespierre....
leapt out of a window in an escape attempt, broke his legs, and was arrested. Le Bas
Philippe-François-Joseph Le Bas
Philippe-François-Joseph Le Bas was a French revolutionary.- Life :The son of a notary, intendant to the prince de Rache, avocat to the parliament of 1789, companion and collaborator of Saint-Just, in 1792 Le Bas was elected député to the National Convention for the Pas-de-Calais, sitting among...
committed suicide. Couthon
Georges Couthon
Georges Auguste Couthon a French politician and lawyer in the French Revolution. Couthon would befriend Robespierre and serve on the Committee of Public Safety with him from 30 May 1793 until his and Robespierre’s deaths in 1794...
, who was paralysed from the waist down, was found lying at the bottom of a staircase. Robespierre was shot in the face, and his jaw was shattered. There are two accounts of how he received the wound. One states that, anticipating his own downfall and wanting to have the death of a hero, Robespierre attempted to kill himself and shattered his own jaw with a shot. The contrary view is that he was shot by one of the Convention's troops. At the time, a gendarme
Gendarmerie
A gendarmerie or gendarmery is a military force charged with police duties among civilian populations. Members of such a force are typically called "gendarmes". The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary describes a gendarme as "a soldier who is employed on police duties" and a "gendarmery, -erie" as...
named Charles-André Merda
Charles-André Merda
Charles-André Merda was a French soldier. A National Guardsman in the Parisian National Guard from September 1789, then a gendarme from 1794, he participated in the arrest of Maximilien de Robespierre on the night of 9/10 thermidor Year II and claimed to have fired the pistol shot which broke...
claimed to have pulled the trigger.
Saint-Just made no attempt at suicide or concealment. Hanriot tried to hide in the Hôtel de Ville's yard, by some sources after being thrown out a window into a stack of latrine
Latrine
A latrine is a communal facility containing one or more commonly many toilets which may be simple pit toilets or in the case of the United States Armed Forces any toilet including modern flush toilets...
and hay
Hay
Hay is grass, legumes or other herbaceous plants that have been cut, dried, and stored for use as animal fodder, particularly for grazing livestock such as cattle, horses, goats, and sheep. Hay is also fed to pets such as rabbits and guinea pigs...
, but the Convention troops quickly discovered him and assaulted him badly, allegedly gouging one of his eyes out so that it hung from its socket.
Death of Robespierre
Outlaw
In historical legal systems, an outlaw is declared as outside the protection of the law. In pre-modern societies, this takes the burden of active prosecution of a criminal from the authorities. Instead, the criminal is withdrawn all legal protection, so that anyone is legally empowered to persecute...
, and condemned without judicial process. The following day, 10 Thermidor (28 July 1794), he was executed with 21 of his closest associates, including:
- Adrien-Nicolas Gobeau, ex-substitute of the public prosecutor;
- Antoine Gency;
- Antoine SimonAntoine SimonAntoine Simon was born in Troyes, France, the son of François Simon and Marie-Jeanne Adenet. He was a shoemaker at Rue des Cordeliers in Paris...
, gaoler of the DauphinLouis XVII of FranceLouis XVII , from birth to 1789 known as Louis-Charles, Duke of Normandy; then from 1789 to 1791 as Louis-Charles, Dauphin of France; and from 1791 to 1793 as Louis-Charles, Prince Royal of France, was the son of King Louis XVI of France and Queen Marie Antoinette...
; - Augustin RobespierreAugustin RobespierreAugustin Bon Joseph de Robespierre was the younger brother of French Revolutionary leader, Maximilien Robespierre....
; - Charles-Jacques Bougon;
- Christophe Cochefer;
- Claude-François de Payan;
- Denis-Étienne Laurent, municipal officer;
- Étienne-Nicolas Guérin;
- François HanriotFrançois HanriotFrançois Hanriot was a French leader and street orator of the Revolution. He played a vital role in the Insurrection and subsequently the fall of the Girondins.-Early years:...
, ex-commander of the garde nationale; - Jean-Baptiste de Lavalette, ex-général de brigade;
- Jean-Barnabé Dhazard;
- Jean-Baptiste Fleuriot-Lescot, mayor of Paris;
- Jean-Claude Bernard;
- Jean-Etienne Forestier;
- Jacques-Louis Frédéric Wouarmé.
- Jean-Marie Quenet;
- Georges CouthonGeorges CouthonGeorges Auguste Couthon a French politician and lawyer in the French Revolution. Couthon would befriend Robespierre and serve on the Committee of Public Safety with him from 30 May 1793 until his and Robespierre’s deaths in 1794...
; - Louis-Antoine-Léon Saint-JustLouis de Saint-JustLouis Antoine Léon de Saint-Just , usually known as Saint-Just, was a military and political leader during the French Revolution. The youngest of the deputies elected to the National Convention in 1792, Saint-Just rose quickly in their ranks and became a major leader of the government of the French...
; - Nicolas-Joseph Vivier, judge of the Revolutionary Tribunal;
- René-François Dumas, ex-president of the Revolutionary Tribunal;
Consequences
Certainly, the events of 9 Thermidor were to prove a watershed in the revolutionary process. The Thermidorian regime that followed was, at the very least, less rigid, ending the Reign of Terror and allowing for more individual liberty, especially in areas of religion. At the same time, its economic policies paved the way for rampant inflationInflation
In economics, inflation is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a period of time.When the general price level rises, each unit of currency buys fewer goods and services. Consequently, inflation also reflects an erosion in the purchasing power of money – a...
. Ultimately, power devolved to the hands of the Directory, an executive of five men who assumed power in France in year III of the French Revolution.
The Thermidorian regime excluded the remaining Montagnards from power, even those who had joined in conspiring against Robespierre and Saint-Just. The White Terror resulted in numerous imprisonments and several hundred executions, almost exclusively of people on the political left. These numbers, while significant, were considerably smaller than those associated with the previous Reign of Terror, which killed thousands, however, even in smaller numbers, said executions were made for revenge against the Jacobins and mostly for political differences, also many of the victims were executed without a trial.
End of the Reaction
The Thermidorian Convention continued until 26 October 1795 (4 Brumaire Year IV), when the National Convention was succeeded by the French DirectoryFrench Directory
The Directory was a body of five Directors that held executive power in France following the Convention and preceding the Consulate...
.
Other Thermidorian Reactions
For historians of revolutionary movements, the term Thermidor has come to mean the phase in some revolutions when power slips from the hands of the original revolutionary leadership and a radical regime is replaced by a more conservative regime, sometimes to the point where the political pendulum may swing back towards something resembling a pre-revolutionary state. Leon TrotskyLeon Trotsky
Leon Trotsky , born Lev Davidovich Bronshtein, was a Russian Marxist revolutionary and theorist, Soviet politician, and the founder and first leader of the Red Army....
, in his book The Revolution Betrayed
The Revolution Betrayed
The Revolution Betrayed: What Is the Soviet Union and Where Is It Going? is a book by the Russian Bolshevik leader Leon Trotsky, published in 1937, analyzing and criticizing Stalinism and the post-Lenin development in the Soviet Union....
, refers to the rise of Joseph Stalin
Joseph Stalin
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin was the Premier of the Soviet Union from 6 May 1941 to 5 March 1953. He was among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who brought about the October Revolution and had held the position of first General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee...
and the accompanying post-revolutionary bureaucracy as the Soviet Thermidor.
Sources
- Becker Marianne, Maximilien, Histoire de Robespierre, tome 1 (1989); fiction.
- Becker Marianne, Maximilien, Histoire de Robespierre, tome 2 (1994); fiction.
- Becker Marianne, Maximilien, Histoire de Robespierre, tome 3 (1999); fiction.
- Bouloiseau Marc, Robespierre, Que sais-je?, Presses Universitaires de France (1956).
- Bouloiseau Marc, La republique JacobinJacobin ClubThe Jacobin Club was the most famous and influential political club in the development of the French Revolution, so-named because of the Dominican convent where they met, located in the Rue St. Jacques , Paris. The club originated as the Club Benthorn, formed at Versailles from a group of Breton...
(10 août 1792 - 9 thermidor an II). Paris. (1972) - Brunel Françoise, Thermidor, la chute de Robespierre, Ed. Complexe (1989).
- Domecq Jean Philippe, Robespierre, derniers temps, Seuil (1984).
- Frère Jean-Claude, Robespierre, la victoire ou la mort, Flammarion (1983).
- Gallo Max, L'homme Robespierre, histoire d'une solitude, Librairie Acad. Perrin (1984).
- Guillemin Henri, Robespierre politique et mystique, Seuil (1987).
- Hamel Ernest, Histoire de Robespierre, A. Cinqualbre, Paris (1885).
- Hamel Ernest, Thermidor, Jouvet & Cie Editeur (1891).
- Jacob Louis, Robespierre vu par ses contemporains, (1938).
- Pierre-Toussaint Durand de Maillane, L'Histoire de la Convention Nationale. Paris: Baudouin (1825)
- Madelin Louis, Fouché, de la Révolution à l'Empire, tome 1, Nouveau Monde Editions, Reedition (2002)
- Massin Jean, Robespierre, Club français du livre (1959).
- Mathiez Albert, Autour de Robespierre, Payot.
- Mathiez Albert, Robespierre terroriste, (1921).
- Mathiez Albert, Etudes sur Robespierre, S.E.R.(1927).
- Robespierre Maximilien, Discours et rapports à la Convention, Ed. 10/18 (1965).
- Robespierre Maximilien, Textes choisis, Ed. Sociales (1973).
- Sollet Bertrand, Robespierre, Messidor (1988).
- Walter Gèrard, Robespierre, Gallimard (1961).
Hibbert, Christopher "Paris in the Terror" New York: Dorset Press (1981).