Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford
Encyclopedia
Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford (13 April 1593 (O.S.) – 12 May 1641) was an English statesman and a major figure in the period leading up to the English Civil War
. He served in Parliament
and was a supporter of King Charles I
. From 1632 to 1639 he instituted a harsh rule as Lord Deputy of Ireland
. Recalled to England, he became a leading advisor to the king, attempting to strengthen the royal position against Parliament. When Parliament condemned him to death, Charles signed the death warrant
and Wentworth was executed.
, near Rotherham
, a member of an old Yorkshire
family, and of Ally, daughter of Sir Robert Atkins of Stowell, Gloucestershire
. This page should not be copied and pasted unless the right is given by the author. He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge
, became a law student at the Inner Temple
in 1607, and in 1611 was knighted and married Margaret, daughter of Francis Clifford, 4th Earl of Cumberland
.
's representative in the "Addled Parliament
". He was an opponent of the policies of James I of England
, confronting the king's foremost advisor and favourite
, George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham
; but it was not until the parliament of 1621, in which he sat for the same constituency, that he took part in debate. His position was ambivalent. He did not sympathize with the zeal of the popular party for war with Spain, but King James's denial of the rights and privileges of parliament seems to have caused him to join in the vindication of the claims of the House of Commons
, and he supported the protestation which dissolved the third parliament of James.
In 1622 Wentworth's wife died, and in February 1625 he married Arabella Holles, daughter of John Holles, 1st Earl of Clare
. He represented Pontefract
in the parliament of 1624, but appears to have taken no active part. He expressed a wish to avoid foreign complications and "do first the business of the commonwealth."
In the first parliament of Charles I
, June 1625, Wentworth again represented Yorkshire, and showed his hostility to the proposed war with Spain by supporting a motion for an adjournment before the house proceeded to business. He opposed the demand for war subsidies made on Buckingham
's behalf - after the death of James I, Buckingham had become first minister to Charles - and after Parliament was dissolved in November he was made High Sheriff of Yorkshire
, a position which excluded him from the parliament which met in 1626.
In January 1626 Wentworth asked for the presidency of the Council of the North
, and was favourably received by Buckingham. But after the dissolution of the parliament, he was dismissed from the justiceship of the peace
and the office of custos rotulorum
of Yorkshire - which he had held since 1615 - probably because he would not support the court in forcing the country to contribute money without a parliamentary grant. In 1627, he refused to contribute to the forced loan, and was subsequently imprisoned.
, which attempted to curb the power of the King. Once Charles had (grudgingly) accepted the Petition, Wentworth felt it appropriate to support the crown, saying "The authority of a king is the keystone which closeth up the arch of order and government." He was consequently branded a turncoat. And on 22 July 1628, he was created Baron Wentworth.
In the parliament of 1628, Wentworth joined the popular leaders in resistance to arbitrary taxation and imprisonment, but tried to obtain his goal without offending the Crown. He led the movement for a bill which would have secured the liberties of the subject as completely as the Petition of Right afterwards did, but in a manner less offensive to the King. The proposal failed because of both the uncompromising nature of the parliamentary party and Charles's stubborn refusal to make concessions, and the leadership was snatched from Wentworth's hands by John Eliot
and Edward Coke
. Later in the session he quarrelled with Eliot, because he wanted to come to a compromise with the Lords, so as to leave room for the King to act unchecked in special emergencies.
As yet Wentworth was not directly involved in the government of the country. But, and following the assassination of Buckingham, in December, 1628, he became Viscount Wentworth and president of the Council of the North
. In the speech delivered at York
on taking office, he announced his intention, almost in the words of Francis Bacon
, of doing his utmost to bind up the prerogative of the Crown and the liberties of the subject in indistinguishable union. "Whoever," he said, "ravels forth into questions the right of a king and of a people shall never be able to wrap them up again into the comeliness and order he found them." His tactics were the same as those he later practised in Ireland, leading to the accusation that he planned to centralise all power with the executive at the expense of the individual in defiance of constitutional liberties.
The parliamentary session of 1629 ended in a breach between the king and parliament which made the task of a moderator hopeless. Wentworth had to choose between either helping the House of Commons
dominate the King or helping the King to dominate the House of Commons. He chose the latter course, throwing himself into the work of repression with characteristic energy and claiming that he was maintaining the old constitution and that his opponents (Parliament) were attempting to alter it. From this time on, he acted as one of two principal members (the other being Archbishop William Laud
) in a team of key advisors to the king during an eleven-year period of total monarchical rule without parliament (known both as "the Personal Rule
" and the "eleven-year tyranny").
In November 1629 Wentworth became a privy counsellor
. In January 1632, he was made Lord Deputy of Ireland
, largely because of his reputation for harshness. There he exercised the policy of "Thorough
" (a determined strong rule from the centre in partnership with Laud) with a certain degree of brutality, propagating the English tradition of using Ireland as a practice ground for social and military experimentation. His methods are generally considered to have been autocratic, single-minded and extreme. The Earl (later the Duke) of Ormonde became Wentworth's chief friend and supporter. Wentworth planned large scale confiscations of Catholic-owned land, both to raise money for the crown and to break the political power of the Irish Catholic gentry, a policy which Ormonde
supported. Yet, it infuriated Ormonde's relatives and drove many of them into opposition to Wentworth and ultimately into armed rebellion. In 1640, with Wentworth having been recalled to attend to the Second Bishops' War in England, Ormonde was made commander-in-chief of the forces in Ireland.
However, Wentworth's heavy-handed approach did yield some improvements, as well as contribute to the strength of royal administration in Ireland. His hindrance in 1634 of The Graces
, a campaign for equality by Roman Catholics in the Parliament of Ireland
, lost him goodwill but was based mainly on fiscal and not religious principles.
He had to deal with a people who had not arrived at national cohesion, and amongst whom English and Scottish colonists had been introduced (see Plantations of Ireland
), some of them, like the early Norman
settlers, being Catholics, whilst others preserved their Protestantism
. "The lord deputy of Ireland," wrote Sir Thomas Roe
to Elizabeth of Bohemia
, "doeth great wonders and governs like a king, and hath taught that kingdom to show us an example of envy, by having parliaments and knowing wisely how to use them." Wentworth reformed the administration, getting rid of the inefficient English officials. He manipulated the parliaments to obtain the necessary grants, and secured their cooperation in various useful legislative enactments. He started a new victualling trade with Spain, promoted linen
manufacture, and encouraged the development of the resources of the country in many directions.
Customs duties rose from a little over £25,000 in 1633–1634 to £57,000 in 1637–1638. Wentworth raised an army, put an end to piracy
, instilled life into the Church and rescued church property. His strong administration reduced the tyranny of the wealthy over the poor. Yet these good measures were all carried out by arbitrary methods which made them unpopular. Their aim was not the prosperity of the Irish but the benefit to the English exchequer
, and Wentworth suppressed the trade in cloth "lest it should be a means to prejudice that staple commodity of England." Individual cases of unfairness included those of Esmond
, Lord Chancellor Loftus and Lord Mountnorris
, the last of whom Wentworth caused to be sentenced to death in order to obtain the resignation of his office, and then pardoned.
Wentworth ignored Charles's promise that no colonists should be forced into Connaught
, and in 1635 he raked up an obsolete title—the grant in the 14th century of Connaught to Lionel of Antwerp, whose heir Charles was—and insisted upon the grand juries finding verdicts for the king. One county only, that of Galway
, resisted, and the confiscation of Galway was effected by the court of exchequer
, while Wentworth fined the sheriff £1,000 for summoning such a jury, and cited the jurymen to the castle chamber to answer for their offence. In Ulster
the arbitrary confiscation of the property of the city companies aroused dangerous animosity against the government.
Wentworth was unsympathetic towards the Irish as a race. His only thought was to convert them into Englishmen as soon as possible, in their habits, in their laws and in their religion. "I see plainly," he once wrote, "that, so long as this kingdom continues popish
, they are not a people for the Crown of England to be confident of." He became even more high-handed.
As yet Wentworth had never been consulted on English affairs, and it was only in February 1637 that Charles asked his opinion on a proposed interference in the affairs of the Continent
. In reply, he assured Charles that it would be unwise to undertake naval operations until he had secured absolute power at home. He wished that John Hampden
and his followers "were well whipped into their right senses." The opinion of the judges had given the King the right to levy ship money
, but Wentworth did not consider this enough. When the Scottish Puritans rebelled, he advocated the most decided measures of repression, in February 1639 sending the king £2,000 as his contribution to the expenses of the coming war, at the same time arguing against an invasion of Scotland before the English army was trained, and advising certain concessions in religion.
s, and became the king's principal adviser. Unaware how much opposition had developed in England during his absence, he recommended the calling of a parliament to support a renewal of the war, hoping that by the offer of a loan from the privy councillors, he would save Charles from having to submit to the new parliament if it rebelled. In January 1640 the king created him Earl of Strafford, (the Wentworth family seat of Wentworth Woodhouse
lay in the hundred of Strafford ( Strafforth
) in the West Riding of Yorkshire)
and in March he went to Ireland to hold a parliament, where the Catholic vote secured a grant of subsidies to be used against the Presbyterian Scots. An Irish army was to be levied to assist in the coming war. When Strafford (i.e. Thomas Wentworth) returned to England he tried to enlist the peers on the side of the king, but persuaded Charles to be content with a smaller grant than he had originally asked for.
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The Commons, however, insisted on peace with the Scots. Charles, on the advice of—or perhaps by the treachery of—Henry Vane the Elder, returned to his larger demand of twelve subsidies; and on 9 May, at the privy council, Strafford, though reluctantly, voted for a dissolution. The same morning the Committee of Eight of the privy council met again. Vane and others were for a mere defence against invasion. Strafford's advice was the contrary. "Go on vigorously or let them alone... go on with a vigorous war as you first designed, loose and absolved from all rules of government, being reduced to extreme necessity, everything is to be done that power might admit... You have an army in Ireland you may employ here to reduce this kingdom...." He tried to force the citizens of London to lend money, and supported a project for debasing the coinage
and seizing bullion in the Tower of London
, the property of foreign merchants. He also advocated the purchase of a loan from Spain by the offer of a future alliance. Strafford was now appointed to command the English army, and was made a Knight of the Garter, but he fell ill at a crucial moment. In the great council of peers, which assembled on 24 September at York
, the struggle was given up, and Charles announced that he had issued writs for another parliament.
By November 1640, there was no other choice but to dismiss Parliament. The Long Parliament
assembled on 3 November 1640, and Charles immediately summoned Strafford to London, promising that he "should not suffer in his person, honour or fortune." One of Parliament's first utterances after its eleven-year forced hiatus was to impeach Strafford for "high misdemeanours" regarding his conduct in Ireland. He arrived on 9 November and the next day asked the king to forestall his impeachment
by accusing the leaders of the popular party of treasonable communications with the Scots. The plan having been betrayed, John Pym
immediately took up the impeachment to the House of Lords
. Strafford came in person to confront his accusers, but was ordered to withdraw and taken into custody. On 25 November his preliminary charge was brought up, whereupon he was sent to the Tower, and, on 31 January 1641, the accusations in detail were presented. These were that Strafford had tried to subvert the fundamental laws of the kingdom. Much stress was laid on Strafford's reported words: "You have an army in Ireland you may employ here to reduce this kingdom."
; the copy of rough notes of Strafford's speech in the committee of the council, its authenticity not supported by councillors who had been present on the occasion, was not evidence which would convict in a court of law. His words had to be arbitrarily interpreted as referring to the subjection of England and not of Scotland and were also spoken on a privileged occasion. Strafford took full advantage of the weak points in the attack, and the lords, his judges, were influenced in his favour. But behind the legal aspect of the case lay the great constitutional question of the responsibility to the nation of the leader of its administration. The impeachment failed on 10 April.
By this point, Strafford had become something of a symbol for absolute monarchy
, and Parliament felt the need to kill this symbol off. Consequently, the House of Commons
produced a bill of attainder
which essentially meant that Strafford could be executed regardless of crime, simply because it was the will of Parliament that he should die. On 13 April the Commons passed the bill by a vote of 204 to 59. But the bill could still be blocked in the House of Lords
of which Strafford was a member. There was considerable public feeling against Strafford, and the threat of mob violence was sufficient to persuade the Lords to give way, rejecting the submissions in defence of Strafford by Richard Lane
. A scheme to win over the leaders of the Parliament, and a scheme to seize the Tower and free Strafford by force, were both considered by the king; and the revelation of the army plot on 5 May caused the Lords to pass the attainder. Nothing now remained but the king's signature.
Strafford had served Charles with what the king felt was a massive degree of loyalty, and Charles had a serious problem with signing Strafford's death warrant as a matter of conscience. However, to refuse the will of the Parliament on this matter could seriously threaten the monarchy. Charles had, after the passing of the attainder by the Commons, for the second time assured Strafford "upon the word of a king, you shall not suffer in life, honour or fortune." Strafford now wrote releasing the king from his engagements and declaring his willingness to die in order to reconcile Charles to his subjects. "I do most humbly beseech you, for the preventing of such massacres as may happen by your refusal, to pass the bill; by this means to remove... the unfortunate thing forth of the way towards that blessed agreement, which God, I trust, shall for ever establish between you and your subjects." Charles gave his assent on 10 May.
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Strafford met his fate two days later on Tower Hill
, receiving the blessing of Archbishop Laud
, who was then also imprisoned in the Tower. He was executed before a crowd of about 200,000 on 12 May 1641. His relative, another Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Cleveland
, attended the execution and went on to fight during the Civil War on the king's side. Following news of Strafford's execution, Ireland rose in rebellion
in October 1641. This led to more bickering between king and parliament, this time over the raising of an army.
When Charles I was executed eight years later, amongst his last words were that he suggested that God had permitted his execution as punishment for his permitting Strafford's execution. This suggests he regretted signing the death warrant.
In the course of his career he made many enemies. Yet Strafford was capable of inspiring strong friendships in private life. Sir Thomas Roe
speaks of him as "Severe abroad and in business, and sweet in private conversation; retired in his friendships but very firm; a terrible judge and a strong enemy." His appearance is described by Sir Philip Warwick
: "In his person he was of a tall stature, but stooped much in the neck. His countenance was cloudy whilst he moved or sat thinking, but when he spoke, either seriously or facetiously, he had a lightsome and a very pleasant air; and indeed whatever he then did he performed very gracefully." He himself jested on his own "bent and ill-favoured brow," Lord Exeter replying that had he been "cursed with a meek brow and an arch of white hair upon it, he would never have governed Ireland nor Yorkshire."
In 1662 Parliament reversed the attainder to allow his son William Wentworth
to inherit his title.
English Civil War
The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists...
. He served in Parliament
Parliament of England
The Parliament of England was the legislature of the Kingdom of England. In 1066, William of Normandy introduced a feudal system, by which he sought the advice of a council of tenants-in-chief and ecclesiastics before making laws...
and was a supporter of King Charles I
Charles I of England
Charles I was King of England, King of Scotland, and King of Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. Charles engaged in a struggle for power with the Parliament of England, attempting to obtain royal revenue whilst Parliament sought to curb his Royal prerogative which Charles...
. From 1632 to 1639 he instituted a harsh rule as Lord Deputy of Ireland
Lord Deputy of Ireland
The Lord Deputy was the King's representative and head of the Irish executive under English rule, during the Lordship of Ireland and later the Kingdom of Ireland...
. Recalled to England, he became a leading advisor to the king, attempting to strengthen the royal position against Parliament. When Parliament condemned him to death, Charles signed the death warrant
Execution warrant
An execution warrant is a writ which authorizes the execution of a judgment of death on an individual...
and Wentworth was executed.
Early life
He was born in London, the son of Sir William Wentworth, of Wentworth WoodhouseWentworth Woodhouse
Wentworth Woodhouse is a Grade I listed country house near the village of Wentworth, in the vicinity of Rotherham, South Yorkshire, England. "One of the great Whig political palaces", its East Front, long, is the longest country house façade in Europe. The house includes 365 rooms and covers an...
, near Rotherham
Rotherham
Rotherham is a town in South Yorkshire, England. It lies on the River Don, at its confluence with the River Rother, between Sheffield and Doncaster. Rotherham, at from Sheffield City Centre, is surrounded by several smaller settlements, which together form the wider Metropolitan Borough of...
, a member of an old Yorkshire
Yorkshire
Yorkshire is a historic county of northern England and the largest in the United Kingdom. Because of its great size in comparison to other English counties, functions have been increasingly undertaken over time by its subdivisions, which have also been subject to periodic reform...
family, and of Ally, daughter of Sir Robert Atkins of Stowell, Gloucestershire
Gloucestershire
Gloucestershire is a county in South West England. The county comprises part of the Cotswold Hills, part of the flat fertile valley of the River Severn, and the entire Forest of Dean....
. This page should not be copied and pasted unless the right is given by the author. He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge
St John's College, Cambridge
St John's College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge. The college's alumni include nine Nobel Prize winners, six Prime Ministers, three archbishops, at least two princes, and three Saints....
, became a law student at the Inner Temple
Inner Temple
The Honourable Society of the Inner Temple, commonly known as Inner Temple, is one of the four Inns of Court in London. To be called to the Bar and practise as a barrister in England and Wales, an individual must belong to one of these Inns...
in 1607, and in 1611 was knighted and married Margaret, daughter of Francis Clifford, 4th Earl of Cumberland
Francis Clifford, 4th Earl of Cumberland
Francis Clifford, 4th Earl of Cumberland was a member of the Clifford family which held the seat of Skipton from 1310 to 1676....
.
Early Parliamentary career
Wentworth entered English Parliament in 1614 as YorkshireYorkshire (UK Parliament constituency)
Yorkshire was a constituency of the House of Commons of the Parliament of England from 1290, then of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1707 to 1800 and of the Parliament of the United Kingdom from 1801 to 1832...
's representative in the "Addled Parliament
Addled Parliament
The Addled Parliament was the second Parliament of England of the reign of James I of England , which sat between 5 April and 7 June 1614...
". He was an opponent of the policies of James I of England
James I of England
James VI and I was King of Scots as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the English and Scottish crowns on 24 March 1603...
, confronting the king's foremost advisor and favourite
Favourite
A favourite , or favorite , was the intimate companion of a ruler or other important person. In medieval and Early Modern Europe, among other times and places, the term is used of individuals delegated significant political power by a ruler...
, George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham
George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham
George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham KG was the favourite, claimed by some to be the lover, of King James I of England. Despite a very patchy political and military record, he remained at the height of royal favour for the first two years of the reign of Charles I, until he was assassinated...
; but it was not until the parliament of 1621, in which he sat for the same constituency, that he took part in debate. His position was ambivalent. He did not sympathize with the zeal of the popular party for war with Spain, but King James's denial of the rights and privileges of parliament seems to have caused him to join in the vindication of the claims of the House of Commons
British House of Commons
The House of Commons is the lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which also comprises the Sovereign and the House of Lords . Both Commons and Lords meet in the Palace of Westminster. The Commons is a democratically elected body, consisting of 650 members , who are known as Members...
, and he supported the protestation which dissolved the third parliament of James.
In 1622 Wentworth's wife died, and in February 1625 he married Arabella Holles, daughter of John Holles, 1st Earl of Clare
John Holles, 1st Earl of Clare
John Holles, 1st Earl of Clare was an English nobleman.He was the son of Denzel Holles of Irby upon Humber and Eleanor Sheffield...
. He represented Pontefract
Pontefract
Pontefract is an historic market town in West Yorkshire, England. Traditionally in the West Riding, near the A1 , the M62 motorway and Castleford. It is one of the five towns in the metropolitan borough of the City of Wakefield and has a population of 28,250...
in the parliament of 1624, but appears to have taken no active part. He expressed a wish to avoid foreign complications and "do first the business of the commonwealth."
In the first parliament of Charles I
Charles I of England
Charles I was King of England, King of Scotland, and King of Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. Charles engaged in a struggle for power with the Parliament of England, attempting to obtain royal revenue whilst Parliament sought to curb his Royal prerogative which Charles...
, June 1625, Wentworth again represented Yorkshire, and showed his hostility to the proposed war with Spain by supporting a motion for an adjournment before the house proceeded to business. He opposed the demand for war subsidies made on Buckingham
George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham
George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham KG was the favourite, claimed by some to be the lover, of King James I of England. Despite a very patchy political and military record, he remained at the height of royal favour for the first two years of the reign of Charles I, until he was assassinated...
's behalf - after the death of James I, Buckingham had become first minister to Charles - and after Parliament was dissolved in November he was made High Sheriff of Yorkshire
High Sheriff of Yorkshire
The High Sheriff of Yorkshire was an ancient High Sheriff title originating in the time of the Angles, not long after the invasion of the Kingdom of England, which was in existence for around a thousand years. A list of the sheriffs from the Norman conquest onwards can be found below...
, a position which excluded him from the parliament which met in 1626.
In January 1626 Wentworth asked for the presidency of the Council of the North
Council of the North
The Council of the North was an administrative body originally set up in 1484 by king Richard III of England, the third and last Yorkist monarch to hold the Crown of England; its intention was to improve government control and economic prosperity, to benefit the entire area of Northern England...
, and was favourably received by Buckingham. But after the dissolution of the parliament, he was dismissed from the justiceship of the peace
Justice of the Peace
A justice of the peace is a puisne judicial officer elected or appointed by means of a commission to keep the peace. Depending on the jurisdiction, they might dispense summary justice or merely deal with local administrative applications in common law jurisdictions...
and the office of custos rotulorum
Custos rotulorum
Custos rotulorum is the keeper of an English county's records and, by virtue of that office, the highest civil officer in the county...
of Yorkshire - which he had held since 1615 - probably because he would not support the court in forcing the country to contribute money without a parliamentary grant. In 1627, he refused to contribute to the forced loan, and was subsequently imprisoned.
The Petition of Right and its aftermath
In 1628, Wentworth was one of the more vocal supporters of the Petition of RightPetition of right
In English law, a petition of right was a remedy available to subjects to recover property from the Crown.Before the Crown Proceedings Act 1947, the British Crown could not be sued in contract...
, which attempted to curb the power of the King. Once Charles had (grudgingly) accepted the Petition, Wentworth felt it appropriate to support the crown, saying "The authority of a king is the keystone which closeth up the arch of order and government." He was consequently branded a turncoat. And on 22 July 1628, he was created Baron Wentworth.
In the parliament of 1628, Wentworth joined the popular leaders in resistance to arbitrary taxation and imprisonment, but tried to obtain his goal without offending the Crown. He led the movement for a bill which would have secured the liberties of the subject as completely as the Petition of Right afterwards did, but in a manner less offensive to the King. The proposal failed because of both the uncompromising nature of the parliamentary party and Charles's stubborn refusal to make concessions, and the leadership was snatched from Wentworth's hands by John Eliot
John Eliot (statesman)
Sir John Eliot was an English statesman who was serially imprisoned in the Tower of London, where he eventually died, by King Charles I for advocating the rights and privileges of Parliament.-Family and early life:...
and Edward Coke
Edward Coke
Sir Edward Coke SL PC was an English barrister, judge and politician considered to be the greatest jurist of the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras. Born into a middle class family, Coke was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge before leaving to study at the Inner Temple, where he was called to the...
. Later in the session he quarrelled with Eliot, because he wanted to come to a compromise with the Lords, so as to leave room for the King to act unchecked in special emergencies.
As yet Wentworth was not directly involved in the government of the country. But, and following the assassination of Buckingham, in December, 1628, he became Viscount Wentworth and president of the Council of the North
Council of the North
The Council of the North was an administrative body originally set up in 1484 by king Richard III of England, the third and last Yorkist monarch to hold the Crown of England; its intention was to improve government control and economic prosperity, to benefit the entire area of Northern England...
. In the speech delivered at York
York
York is a walled city, situated at the confluence of the Rivers Ouse and Foss in North Yorkshire, England. The city has a rich heritage and has provided the backdrop to major political events throughout much of its two millennia of existence...
on taking office, he announced his intention, almost in the words of Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Albans, KC was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, lawyer, jurist, author and pioneer of the scientific method. He served both as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England...
, of doing his utmost to bind up the prerogative of the Crown and the liberties of the subject in indistinguishable union. "Whoever," he said, "ravels forth into questions the right of a king and of a people shall never be able to wrap them up again into the comeliness and order he found them." His tactics were the same as those he later practised in Ireland, leading to the accusation that he planned to centralise all power with the executive at the expense of the individual in defiance of constitutional liberties.
The parliamentary session of 1629 ended in a breach between the king and parliament which made the task of a moderator hopeless. Wentworth had to choose between either helping the House of Commons
British House of Commons
The House of Commons is the lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which also comprises the Sovereign and the House of Lords . Both Commons and Lords meet in the Palace of Westminster. The Commons is a democratically elected body, consisting of 650 members , who are known as Members...
dominate the King or helping the King to dominate the House of Commons. He chose the latter course, throwing himself into the work of repression with characteristic energy and claiming that he was maintaining the old constitution and that his opponents (Parliament) were attempting to alter it. From this time on, he acted as one of two principal members (the other being Archbishop William Laud
William Laud
William Laud was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1633 to 1645. One of the High Church Caroline divines, he opposed radical forms of Puritanism...
) in a team of key advisors to the king during an eleven-year period of total monarchical rule without parliament (known both as "the Personal Rule
Personal Rule
The Personal Rule was the period from 1629 to 1640, when King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland ruled without recourse to Parliament...
" and the "eleven-year tyranny").
Lord Deputy of Ireland
Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council, usually known simply as the Privy Council, is a formal body of advisers to the Sovereign in the United Kingdom...
. In January 1632, he was made Lord Deputy of Ireland
Lord Deputy of Ireland
The Lord Deputy was the King's representative and head of the Irish executive under English rule, during the Lordship of Ireland and later the Kingdom of Ireland...
, largely because of his reputation for harshness. There he exercised the policy of "Thorough
Thorough
In 17th century England, Thorough was a name given by Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford to a scheme of his to establish absolute monarchy in England...
" (a determined strong rule from the centre in partnership with Laud) with a certain degree of brutality, propagating the English tradition of using Ireland as a practice ground for social and military experimentation. His methods are generally considered to have been autocratic, single-minded and extreme. The Earl (later the Duke) of Ormonde became Wentworth's chief friend and supporter. Wentworth planned large scale confiscations of Catholic-owned land, both to raise money for the crown and to break the political power of the Irish Catholic gentry, a policy which Ormonde
James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde
James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde PC was an Irish statesman and soldier. He was the second of the Kilcash branch of the family to inherit the earldom. He was the friend of Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford, who appointeed him commander of the Cavalier forces in Ireland. From 1641 to 1647, he...
supported. Yet, it infuriated Ormonde's relatives and drove many of them into opposition to Wentworth and ultimately into armed rebellion. In 1640, with Wentworth having been recalled to attend to the Second Bishops' War in England, Ormonde was made commander-in-chief of the forces in Ireland.
However, Wentworth's heavy-handed approach did yield some improvements, as well as contribute to the strength of royal administration in Ireland. His hindrance in 1634 of The Graces
The Graces (Ireland)
The Graces were a proposed series of reforms sought by Roman Catholics in Ireland in 1628-1634.-Background:From 1570 to 1625 most people in the Kingdom of Ireland had remained Roman Catholic despite legislation that was increasingly excluding them from the political and official worlds...
, a campaign for equality by Roman Catholics in the Parliament of Ireland
Parliament of Ireland
The Parliament of Ireland was a legislature that existed in Dublin from 1297 until 1800. In its early mediaeval period during the Lordship of Ireland it consisted of either two or three chambers: the House of Commons, elected by a very restricted suffrage, the House of Lords in which the lords...
, lost him goodwill but was based mainly on fiscal and not religious principles.
He had to deal with a people who had not arrived at national cohesion, and amongst whom English and Scottish colonists had been introduced (see Plantations of Ireland
Plantations of Ireland
Plantations in 16th and 17th century Ireland were the confiscation of land by the English crown and the colonisation of this land with settlers from England and the Scottish Lowlands....
), some of them, like the early Norman
Normans
The Normans were the people who gave their name to Normandy, a region in northern France. They were descended from Norse Viking conquerors of the territory and the native population of Frankish and Gallo-Roman stock...
settlers, being Catholics, whilst others preserved their Protestantism
Protestantism
Protestantism is one of the three major groupings within Christianity. It is a movement that began in Germany in the early 16th century as a reaction against medieval Roman Catholic doctrines and practices, especially in regards to salvation, justification, and ecclesiology.The doctrines of the...
. "The lord deputy of Ireland," wrote Sir Thomas Roe
Thomas Roe
Sir Thomas Roe was an English diplomat of the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods. Roe was an accomplished scholar and a patron of learning.-Life:...
to Elizabeth of Bohemia
Elizabeth of Bohemia
Elizabeth of Bohemia was the eldest daughter of King James VI and I, King of Scotland, England, Ireland, and Anne of Denmark. As the wife of Frederick V, Elector Palatine, she was Electress Palatine and briefly Queen of Bohemia...
, "doeth great wonders and governs like a king, and hath taught that kingdom to show us an example of envy, by having parliaments and knowing wisely how to use them." Wentworth reformed the administration, getting rid of the inefficient English officials. He manipulated the parliaments to obtain the necessary grants, and secured their cooperation in various useful legislative enactments. He started a new victualling trade with Spain, promoted linen
Linen
Linen is a textile made from the fibers of the flax plant, Linum usitatissimum. Linen is labor-intensive to manufacture, but when it is made into garments, it is valued for its exceptional coolness and freshness in hot weather....
manufacture, and encouraged the development of the resources of the country in many directions.
Customs duties rose from a little over £25,000 in 1633–1634 to £57,000 in 1637–1638. Wentworth raised an army, put an end to piracy
Piracy
Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence at sea. The term can include acts committed on land, in the air, or in other major bodies of water or on a shore. It does not normally include crimes committed against persons traveling on the same vessel as the perpetrator...
, instilled life into the Church and rescued church property. His strong administration reduced the tyranny of the wealthy over the poor. Yet these good measures were all carried out by arbitrary methods which made them unpopular. Their aim was not the prosperity of the Irish but the benefit to the English exchequer
Exchequer
The Exchequer is a government department of the United Kingdom responsible for the management and collection of taxation and other government revenues. The historical Exchequer developed judicial roles...
, and Wentworth suppressed the trade in cloth "lest it should be a means to prejudice that staple commodity of England." Individual cases of unfairness included those of Esmond
Esmond
-People:* Carl Esmond, Austrian actor* Henry V. Esmond, English actor, playwright* James Esmond, gold prospector* Jill Esmond, English actress* Easton Lamb Esmond, English actor-Literary characters:...
, Lord Chancellor Loftus and Lord Mountnorris
Francis Annesley, 1st Viscount Valentia
Francis Annesley, 1st Viscount Valentia PC was an English statesman during the colonisation of Ireland in the seventeenth century. He was a Member of Parliament for both the English and Irish houses, and was elevated to the Irish peerage as Baron Mountnorris, and later Viscount Valentia.-Rise to...
, the last of whom Wentworth caused to be sentenced to death in order to obtain the resignation of his office, and then pardoned.
Wentworth ignored Charles's promise that no colonists should be forced into Connaught
Connacht
Connacht , formerly anglicised as Connaught, is one of the Provinces of Ireland situated in the west of Ireland. In Ancient Ireland, it was one of the fifths ruled by a "king of over-kings" . Following the Norman invasion of Ireland, the ancient kingdoms were shired into a number of counties for...
, and in 1635 he raked up an obsolete title—the grant in the 14th century of Connaught to Lionel of Antwerp, whose heir Charles was—and insisted upon the grand juries finding verdicts for the king. One county only, that of Galway
Galway
Galway or City of Galway is a city in County Galway, Republic of Ireland. It is the sixth largest and the fastest-growing city in Ireland. It is also the third largest city within the Republic and the only city in the Province of Connacht. Located on the west coast of Ireland, it sits on the...
, resisted, and the confiscation of Galway was effected by the court of exchequer
Court of Exchequer
Court of Exchequer may refer to:*Exchequer of Pleas, an ancient English court, that ceased to exist independently in the late nineteenth century...
, while Wentworth fined the sheriff £1,000 for summoning such a jury, and cited the jurymen to the castle chamber to answer for their offence. In Ulster
Ulster
Ulster is one of the four provinces of Ireland, located in the north of the island. In ancient Ireland, it was one of the fifths ruled by a "king of over-kings" . Following the Norman invasion of Ireland, the ancient kingdoms were shired into a number of counties for administrative and judicial...
the arbitrary confiscation of the property of the city companies aroused dangerous animosity against the government.
Wentworth was unsympathetic towards the Irish as a race. His only thought was to convert them into Englishmen as soon as possible, in their habits, in their laws and in their religion. "I see plainly," he once wrote, "that, so long as this kingdom continues popish
Papist
Papist is a term or an anti-Catholic slur, referring to the Roman Catholic Church, its teachings, practices, or adherents. The term was coined during the English Reformation to denote a person whose loyalties were to the Pope, rather than to the Church of England...
, they are not a people for the Crown of England to be confident of." He became even more high-handed.
As yet Wentworth had never been consulted on English affairs, and it was only in February 1637 that Charles asked his opinion on a proposed interference in the affairs of the Continent
Continental Europe
Continental Europe, also referred to as mainland Europe or simply the Continent, is the continent of Europe, explicitly excluding European islands....
. In reply, he assured Charles that it would be unwise to undertake naval operations until he had secured absolute power at home. He wished that John Hampden
John Hampden
John Hampden was an English politician, the eldest son of William Hampden, of Hampden House, Great Hampden in Buckinghamshire, John Hampden (ca. 15951643) was an English politician, the eldest son of William Hampden, of Hampden House, Great Hampden in Buckinghamshire, John Hampden (ca. 15951643)...
and his followers "were well whipped into their right senses." The opinion of the judges had given the King the right to levy ship money
Ship money
Ship money refers to a tax that Charles I of England tried to levy without the consent of Parliament. This tax, which was only applied to coastal towns during a time of war, was intended to offset the cost of defending that part of the coast, and could be paid in actual ships or the equivalent value...
, but Wentworth did not consider this enough. When the Scottish Puritans rebelled, he advocated the most decided measures of repression, in February 1639 sending the king £2,000 as his contribution to the expenses of the coming war, at the same time arguing against an invasion of Scotland before the English army was trained, and advising certain concessions in religion.
Recall and impeachment
Wentworth was recalled to England in September 1639. He was expected to help sort out the problems that were growing at home: namely, bankruptcy and war with the Scottish CovenanterCovenanter
The Covenanters were a Scottish Presbyterian movement that played an important part in the history of Scotland, and to a lesser extent in that of England and Ireland, during the 17th century...
s, and became the king's principal adviser. Unaware how much opposition had developed in England during his absence, he recommended the calling of a parliament to support a renewal of the war, hoping that by the offer of a loan from the privy councillors, he would save Charles from having to submit to the new parliament if it rebelled. In January 1640 the king created him Earl of Strafford, (the Wentworth family seat of Wentworth Woodhouse
Wentworth Woodhouse
Wentworth Woodhouse is a Grade I listed country house near the village of Wentworth, in the vicinity of Rotherham, South Yorkshire, England. "One of the great Whig political palaces", its East Front, long, is the longest country house façade in Europe. The house includes 365 rooms and covers an...
lay in the hundred of Strafford ( Strafforth
Strafforth and Tickhill
Strafforth and Tickhill, originally known as Strafforth, was the southernmost wapentake in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England. The west of the district, plus a detached area in the east, constituted the Upper Division, while the central area and a detached part in the extreme east constituted...
) in the West Riding of Yorkshire)
and in March he went to Ireland to hold a parliament, where the Catholic vote secured a grant of subsidies to be used against the Presbyterian Scots. An Irish army was to be levied to assist in the coming war. When Strafford (i.e. Thomas Wentworth) returned to England he tried to enlist the peers on the side of the king, but persuaded Charles to be content with a smaller grant than he had originally asked for.
Currency
In economics, currency refers to a generally accepted medium of exchange. These are usually the coins and banknotes of a particular government, which comprise the physical aspects of a nation's money supply...
and seizing bullion in the Tower of London
Tower of London
Her Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress, more commonly known as the Tower of London, is a historic castle on the north bank of the River Thames in central London, England. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, separated from the eastern edge of the City of London by the open space...
, the property of foreign merchants. He also advocated the purchase of a loan from Spain by the offer of a future alliance. Strafford was now appointed to command the English army, and was made a Knight of the Garter, but he fell ill at a crucial moment. In the great council of peers, which assembled on 24 September at York
York
York is a walled city, situated at the confluence of the Rivers Ouse and Foss in North Yorkshire, England. The city has a rich heritage and has provided the backdrop to major political events throughout much of its two millennia of existence...
, the struggle was given up, and Charles announced that he had issued writs for another parliament.
By November 1640, there was no other choice but to dismiss Parliament. The Long Parliament
Long Parliament
The Long Parliament was made on 3 November 1640, following the Bishops' Wars. It received its name from the fact that through an Act of Parliament, it could only be dissolved with the agreement of the members, and those members did not agree to its dissolution until after the English Civil War and...
assembled on 3 November 1640, and Charles immediately summoned Strafford to London, promising that he "should not suffer in his person, honour or fortune." One of Parliament's first utterances after its eleven-year forced hiatus was to impeach Strafford for "high misdemeanours" regarding his conduct in Ireland. He arrived on 9 November and the next day asked the king to forestall his impeachment
Impeachment
Impeachment is a formal process in which an official is accused of unlawful activity, the outcome of which, depending on the country, may include the removal of that official from office as well as other punishment....
by accusing the leaders of the popular party of treasonable communications with the Scots. The plan having been betrayed, John Pym
John Pym
John Pym was an English parliamentarian, leader of the Long Parliament and a prominent critic of James I and then Charles I.- Early life and education :...
immediately took up the impeachment to the House of Lords
House of Lords
The House of Lords is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster....
. Strafford came in person to confront his accusers, but was ordered to withdraw and taken into custody. On 25 November his preliminary charge was brought up, whereupon he was sent to the Tower, and, on 31 January 1641, the accusations in detail were presented. These were that Strafford had tried to subvert the fundamental laws of the kingdom. Much stress was laid on Strafford's reported words: "You have an army in Ireland you may employ here to reduce this kingdom."
The failure of impeachment and the Bill of Attainder
However tyrannical Strafford's earlier conduct may have been, his offence was outside the definition of high treasonHigh treason
High treason is criminal disloyalty to one's government. Participating in a war against one's native country, attempting to overthrow its government, spying on its military, its diplomats, or its secret services for a hostile and foreign power, or attempting to kill its head of state are perhaps...
; the copy of rough notes of Strafford's speech in the committee of the council, its authenticity not supported by councillors who had been present on the occasion, was not evidence which would convict in a court of law. His words had to be arbitrarily interpreted as referring to the subjection of England and not of Scotland and were also spoken on a privileged occasion. Strafford took full advantage of the weak points in the attack, and the lords, his judges, were influenced in his favour. But behind the legal aspect of the case lay the great constitutional question of the responsibility to the nation of the leader of its administration. The impeachment failed on 10 April.
By this point, Strafford had become something of a symbol for absolute monarchy
Absolute monarchy
Absolute monarchy is a monarchical form of government in which the monarch exercises ultimate governing authority as head of state and head of government, his or her power not being limited by a constitution or by the law. An absolute monarch thus wields unrestricted political power over the...
, and Parliament felt the need to kill this symbol off. Consequently, the House of Commons
British House of Commons
The House of Commons is the lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which also comprises the Sovereign and the House of Lords . Both Commons and Lords meet in the Palace of Westminster. The Commons is a democratically elected body, consisting of 650 members , who are known as Members...
produced a bill of attainder
Bill of attainder
A bill of attainder is an act of a legislature declaring a person or group of persons guilty of some crime and punishing them without benefit of a judicial trial.-English law:...
which essentially meant that Strafford could be executed regardless of crime, simply because it was the will of Parliament that he should die. On 13 April the Commons passed the bill by a vote of 204 to 59. But the bill could still be blocked in the House of Lords
House of Lords
The House of Lords is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster....
of which Strafford was a member. There was considerable public feeling against Strafford, and the threat of mob violence was sufficient to persuade the Lords to give way, rejecting the submissions in defence of Strafford by Richard Lane
Richard Lane (barrister)
Sir Richard Lane was an English barrister who practised mostly in the Court of Exchequer. He acted as defence counsel to the Earl of Strafford when he was impeached and attainted, and also represented Archbishop Williams and eleven other bishops who were imprisoned in the Tower of London in...
. A scheme to win over the leaders of the Parliament, and a scheme to seize the Tower and free Strafford by force, were both considered by the king; and the revelation of the army plot on 5 May caused the Lords to pass the attainder. Nothing now remained but the king's signature.
Strafford had served Charles with what the king felt was a massive degree of loyalty, and Charles had a serious problem with signing Strafford's death warrant as a matter of conscience. However, to refuse the will of the Parliament on this matter could seriously threaten the monarchy. Charles had, after the passing of the attainder by the Commons, for the second time assured Strafford "upon the word of a king, you shall not suffer in life, honour or fortune." Strafford now wrote releasing the king from his engagements and declaring his willingness to die in order to reconcile Charles to his subjects. "I do most humbly beseech you, for the preventing of such massacres as may happen by your refusal, to pass the bill; by this means to remove... the unfortunate thing forth of the way towards that blessed agreement, which God, I trust, shall for ever establish between you and your subjects." Charles gave his assent on 10 May.
Death and aftermath
Tower Hill
Tower Hill is an elevated spot northwest of the Tower of London, just outside the limits of the City of London, in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets. Formerly it was part of the Tower Liberty under the direct administrative control of Tower...
, receiving the blessing of Archbishop Laud
William Laud
William Laud was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1633 to 1645. One of the High Church Caroline divines, he opposed radical forms of Puritanism...
, who was then also imprisoned in the Tower. He was executed before a crowd of about 200,000 on 12 May 1641. His relative, another Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Cleveland
Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Cleveland
Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Cleveland was a Cavalier general who fought for Charles I during the English Civil War.He was the eldest son of Henry Wentworth, 3rd Baron Wentworth and Anne Hopton. His paternal grandfather was Thomas Wentworth, 2nd Baron Wentworth, the last Englishman to hold Calais...
, attended the execution and went on to fight during the Civil War on the king's side. Following news of Strafford's execution, Ireland rose in rebellion
Irish Rebellion of 1641
The Irish Rebellion of 1641 began as an attempted coup d'état by Irish Catholic gentry, who tried to seize control of the English administration in Ireland to force concessions for the Catholics living under English rule...
in October 1641. This led to more bickering between king and parliament, this time over the raising of an army.
When Charles I was executed eight years later, amongst his last words were that he suggested that God had permitted his execution as punishment for his permitting Strafford's execution. This suggests he regretted signing the death warrant.
In the course of his career he made many enemies. Yet Strafford was capable of inspiring strong friendships in private life. Sir Thomas Roe
Thomas Roe
Sir Thomas Roe was an English diplomat of the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods. Roe was an accomplished scholar and a patron of learning.-Life:...
speaks of him as "Severe abroad and in business, and sweet in private conversation; retired in his friendships but very firm; a terrible judge and a strong enemy." His appearance is described by Sir Philip Warwick
Philip Warwick
Sir Philip Warwick , English writer and politician, born in Westminster, was the son of Thomas Warwick, or Warrick, a musician....
: "In his person he was of a tall stature, but stooped much in the neck. His countenance was cloudy whilst he moved or sat thinking, but when he spoke, either seriously or facetiously, he had a lightsome and a very pleasant air; and indeed whatever he then did he performed very gracefully." He himself jested on his own "bent and ill-favoured brow," Lord Exeter replying that had he been "cursed with a meek brow and an arch of white hair upon it, he would never have governed Ireland nor Yorkshire."
Family
Marriages- Margaret Clifford (died 1622), daughter of Francis Clifford, 4th Earl of CumberlandFrancis Clifford, 4th Earl of CumberlandFrancis Clifford, 4th Earl of Cumberland was a member of the Clifford family which held the seat of Skipton from 1310 to 1676....
. - Arabella Holles (died October 1631), daughter of John Holles, 1st Earl of ClareJohn Holles, 1st Earl of ClareJohn Holles, 1st Earl of Clare was an English nobleman.He was the son of Denzel Holles of Irby upon Humber and Eleanor Sheffield...
. Married in February 1625. - Elizabeth Rhodes, daughter of Sir Godfrey Rhodes. Married in October 1632.
In 1662 Parliament reversed the attainder to allow his son William Wentworth
William Wentworth, 2nd Earl of Strafford
William Wentworth, 2nd Earl of Strafford was a member of England's House of Lords.He was a son of Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford and his second wife Arabella Holles. When his father, Thomas, was executed in 1641, William left the Kingdom of England for several years. In 1652 he was...
to inherit his title.