Thrust tectonics
Encyclopedia
Thrust tectonics or contractional tectonics is concerned with the structures formed, and the tectonic
processes associated with, the shortening and thickening of the crust
or lithosphere
.
and thick-skinned deformation
. The distinction is important as attempts to structurally restore the deformation will give very different results depending on the assumed geometry.
exists such as salt or a zone of high pore fluid pressure.
refers to shortening that involves basement rock
s rather than just the overlying cover. This type of geometry is typically found in the hinterland of a collisional zone. This style may also occur in the foreland where no effective decollement surface is present or where pre-existing extensional rift structures may be inverted
.
leading to the formation of orogenic belts. The two main types are: the collision of two continental
tectonic plates
(for example the Arabian
and Eurasian plate
s, which formed the Zagros fold and thrust belt
) and collisions between a continent and an island arc
such as that which formed Taiwan
.
and parts of the Dead Sea Transform
.
s are characterised by large prisms of sedimentary material deposited since the original break-up of a continent associated with formation of a new spreading centre
. This wedge of material will tend to spread under gravity and, where an effective detachment
layer is present such as salt
, the extensional faulting that forms at the landward side will be balanced at the front of the wedge by a series of toe-thrusts. Examples include the outboard part of the Niger delta
(with an overpressured mudstone
detachment) and the Angola
margin (with a salt detachment
).
Tectonics
Tectonics is a field of study within geology concerned generally with the structures within the lithosphere of the Earth and particularly with the forces and movements that have operated in a region to create these structures.Tectonics is concerned with the orogenies and tectonic development of...
processes associated with, the shortening and thickening of the crust
Crust (geology)
In geology, the crust is the outermost solid shell of a rocky planet or natural satellite, which is chemically distinct from the underlying mantle...
or lithosphere
Lithosphere
The lithosphere is the rigid outermost shell of a rocky planet. On Earth, it comprises the crust and the portion of the upper mantle that behaves elastically on time scales of thousands of years or greater.- Earth's lithosphere :...
.
Deformation styles
In areas of thrust tectonics two main styles are recognized; thin-skinned deformationThin-skinned deformation
Thin-skinned deformation is a style of deformation in plate tectonics at a convergent boundary which occurs with shallow thrust faults that only involves cover rocks , and not deeper basement rocks....
and thick-skinned deformation
Thick-skinned deformation
Thick-skinned deformation is a geological term which refers to crustal shortening that involves basement rocks and deep-seated faults. Crustal shortening occurs when the region is undergoing horizontal compression. This occurs in orogenesis, or mountain building, during which the crust is shortened...
. The distinction is important as attempts to structurally restore the deformation will give very different results depending on the assumed geometry.
Thin-skinned deformation
Thin-skinned deformation refers to shortening that only involves the sedimentary cover. This style is typical of many fold and thrust belts developed in the foreland of a collisional zone. This is particularly the case where a good basal decollementDecollement
Décollement is a gliding plane between two rock masses. In French, "décoller" means "to detach from" or "to rip off" and was first used by geologists studying the structure of the Swiss Jura Mountains, but is also known as a detachment zone. This is a structure of strata owing to deformation,...
exists such as salt or a zone of high pore fluid pressure.
Thick-skinned deformation
Thick-skinned deformationThick-skinned deformation
Thick-skinned deformation is a geological term which refers to crustal shortening that involves basement rocks and deep-seated faults. Crustal shortening occurs when the region is undergoing horizontal compression. This occurs in orogenesis, or mountain building, during which the crust is shortened...
refers to shortening that involves basement rock
Basement Rock
Basement or Basement Rock music was a sub-genre coined in 2006 in an article by music magazine TGR. This was first in relation to the existence of underground record label Criminal Records but more for the independent bands they represent. The roots of the sub-genre are noted to be as far back as...
s rather than just the overlying cover. This type of geometry is typically found in the hinterland of a collisional zone. This style may also occur in the foreland where no effective decollement surface is present or where pre-existing extensional rift structures may be inverted
Inversion (geology)
In structural geology inversion or basin inversion relates to the relative uplift of a sedimentary basin or similar structure as a result of crustal shortening. This normally excludes uplift developed in the footwalls of later extensional faults, or uplift caused by mantle plumes...
.
Collisional zones
The most significant areas of thrust tectonics are associated with destructive plate boundariesConvergent boundary
In plate tectonics, a convergent boundary, also known as a destructive plate boundary , is an actively deforming region where two tectonic plates or fragments of lithosphere move toward one another and collide...
leading to the formation of orogenic belts. The two main types are: the collision of two continental
Continental crust
The continental crust is the layer of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks which form the continents and the areas of shallow seabed close to their shores, known as continental shelves. This layer is sometimes called sial due to more felsic, or granitic, bulk composition, which lies in...
tectonic plates
Plate tectonics
Plate tectonics is a scientific theory that describes the large scale motions of Earth's lithosphere...
(for example the Arabian
Arabian Plate
The Arabian Plate is one of three tectonic plates which have been moving northward over millions of years and colliding with the Eurasian Plate...
and Eurasian plate
Eurasian Plate
The Eurasian Plate is a tectonic plate which includes most of the continent of Eurasia , with the notable exceptions of the Indian subcontinent, the Arabian subcontinent, and the area east of the Chersky Range in East Siberia...
s, which formed the Zagros fold and thrust belt
Zagros fold and thrust belt
The Zagros fold and thrust belt is a ~1800 km long zone of deformed crustal rocks, formed in the foreland of the collision between the Arabian Plate and the Eurasian Plate...
) and collisions between a continent and an island arc
Island arc
An island arc is a type of archipelago composed of a chain of volcanoes which alignment is arc-shaped, and which are situated parallel and close to a boundary between two converging tectonic plates....
such as that which formed Taiwan
Taiwan
Taiwan , also known, especially in the past, as Formosa , is the largest island of the same-named island group of East Asia in the western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. The island forms over 99% of the current territory of the Republic of China following...
.
Restraining bends on strike-slip faults
When a strike-slip fault is offset along strike such that the resulting bend in the fault hinders easy movement, e.g. a right stepping bend on a sinistral (left-lateral) fault, this will cause local shortening. Examples include the 'Big Bend' region of the San Andreas faultSan Andreas Fault
The San Andreas Fault is a continental strike-slip fault that runs a length of roughly through California in the United States. The fault's motion is right-lateral strike-slip...
and parts of the Dead Sea Transform
Dead Sea Transform
The Dead Sea Transform fault system, also sometimes referred to as the Dead Sea Rift, is a geologic fault which runs from the Maras Triple Junction to the northern end of the Red Sea Rift...
.
Passive margins
Passive marginPassive margin
A passive margin is the transition between oceanic and continental crust which is not an active plate margin. It is constructed by sedimentation above an ancient rift, now marked by transitional crust. Continental rifting creates new ocean basins. Eventually the continental rift forms a mid-oceanic...
s are characterised by large prisms of sedimentary material deposited since the original break-up of a continent associated with formation of a new spreading centre
Mid-ocean ridge
A mid-ocean ridge is a general term for an underwater mountain system that consists of various mountain ranges , typically having a valley known as a rift running along its spine, formed by plate tectonics. This type of oceanic ridge is characteristic of what is known as an oceanic spreading...
. This wedge of material will tend to spread under gravity and, where an effective detachment
Decollement
Décollement is a gliding plane between two rock masses. In French, "décoller" means "to detach from" or "to rip off" and was first used by geologists studying the structure of the Swiss Jura Mountains, but is also known as a detachment zone. This is a structure of strata owing to deformation,...
layer is present such as salt
Salt tectonics
500px|thumb|rightSalt tectonics is concerned with the geometries and processes associated with the presence of significant thicknesses of evaporites containing rock salt within a stratigraphic sequence of rocks...
, the extensional faulting that forms at the landward side will be balanced at the front of the wedge by a series of toe-thrusts. Examples include the outboard part of the Niger delta
Niger Delta
The Niger Delta, the delta of the Niger River in Nigeria, is a densely populated region sometimes called the Oil Rivers because it was once a major producer of palm oil...
(with an overpressured mudstone
Mudstone
Mudstone is a fine grained sedimentary rock whose original constituents were clays or muds. Grain size is up to 0.0625 mm with individual grains too small to be distinguished without a microscope. With increased pressure over time the platey clay minerals may become aligned, with the...
detachment) and the Angola
Angola
Angola, officially the Republic of Angola , is a country in south-central Africa bordered by Namibia on the south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo on the north, and Zambia on the east; its west coast is on the Atlantic Ocean with Luanda as its capital city...
margin (with a salt detachment
Salt tectonics
500px|thumb|rightSalt tectonics is concerned with the geometries and processes associated with the presence of significant thicknesses of evaporites containing rock salt within a stratigraphic sequence of rocks...
).