Timurid relations with Europe
Encyclopedia
Timurid relations with Europe developed in the early 15th century, as the Mongol
ruler Timur
and European monarchs attempted to operate a rapprochement against the expansionist Ottoman Empire
.
Although the Timurid Mongols had been Muslim
since the early 14th century, a strong hostility remained between them and the Ottoman Turks
as well as the Egypt
ian Mamluks.
Ironically considering his self-proclaimed title of ghazi(or "Warrior for Islam"), Timur maintained relatively friendly relations with Europe.
Europe at the time was threatened by the invading armies of the Ottoman Turks and was desperate for allies. Timur likewise saw the European states as allies to help him destroy his Ottoman enemies.
After his campaigns in India
in 1399, Timur took Aleppo
and Damascus
in 1400. He fought and eventually vanquished the Ottoman ruler Bayazid I at the Battle of Ankara
in July 1402.
These mirrored attempts towards a Franco-Mongol alliance
a century before, especially since Ottoman offensives were already threatening Constantinople
at that time.
Timur sent an ambassador to the court of Charles VI
, in the person of the Dominican
monk Jean, Archbishop of Sultānīya. Jean arrived in Paris on 15 June 1403. Timur's letter was delivered to Charles VI, describing him as:
Timur offered a offensive and defensive alliance to Charles VI, as well as the development of commercial relations. Charles VI was only able to send an answer and an envoy shortly before Timur's death.
Relations with Spain
were also developed. In the view of the Spanish historian Miguel Ángel Ochoa Brun, the relations between the courts of Henry III of Castile
and that of Timur were the most important episode of the mediaeval Castiian
diplomacy.
Timur sent to the court of Castile
and León
a Chagatay
ambassador named Hajji Muhammad al-Qazi with letters and gifts.
, with two other ambassadors, Alfonso Paez and Gomez de Salazar. On their return, Timur affirmed that he regarded the king of Spain "as his very own son".
According to Clavijo, Timur's good treatment of the Spanish delegation contrasted with the disdain shown by his host toward the envoys of the "lord of Cathay
" (i.e., the Ming Dynasty
Yongle Emperor
). The Chinese ruler, whose title was "lord of the realms of the face of the earth",
was called by Timur (to Clavijo's face) a "thief and a bad man", and his ambassadors were seated below the Spaniards.
Clavijo's visit to Samarkand allowed him to report to the European audience on the news from Cathay
(China), which few Europeans had been able to visit directly in the century that had passed since the travels of Marco Polo
. Clavijo's account reported, even if in a garbled form, on the recent civil war between the descendants of the Hongwu Emperor
. The Spanish were able to talk to some of the Chinese visitors, and learned about the caravan
routes between Samarkand and Cambalu (Beijing
). Besides telling the European readers about the Cathayan capital Cambalu, which he was told was "the largest city in the world", and the mighty armies of that country, Clavijo also - mistakenly - reported that the new emperor of Cathay had converted to Catholicism. Thus his report served as one of the factors supporting the European belief in the widespread presence of Christianity
in Cathay, which was to persist until the early 17th century and to be one of the reasons for sending the famed Bento de Góis expedition in 1603.
's campaigns against the Ottomans continued to create hope in Christian
Europe
that the invading Islamic armies of the Ottoman Empire
might be diverted away from Europe.
A Bavarian adventurer, J. Schiltberger, is known to have remained in the service of Timur from 1402 to 1405. Also, numerous Venetian and Genoese traders were active in Sultaniya
at that time, since the time of their establishment in Sultaniya under the Il-Khanids.
The next contacts between Europe and Persia would be those of the Venetian traveler Niccolo da Conti
from 1420 to 1425. Contacts failed to develop much further thereafter, although Spain's desire for rapprochement with the Mongols remained until the time of Christopher Colombus in 1492, whose objective was to reach the Great Khan in China
.
The story of Tamerlane has a long legacy associated with Orientalism
in Europe, with such publications as Tamburlaine the Great by Christopher Marlowe
in 1590, or Handel
's opera Tamerlano in 1724.
Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire , initially named as Greater Mongol State was a great empire during the 13th and 14th centuries...
ruler Timur
Timur
Timur , historically known as Tamerlane in English , was a 14th-century conqueror of West, South and Central Asia, and the founder of the Timurid dynasty in Central Asia, and great-great-grandfather of Babur, the founder of the Mughal Dynasty, which survived as the Mughal Empire in India until...
and European monarchs attempted to operate a rapprochement against the expansionist Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
.
Although the Timurid Mongols had been Muslim
Muslim
A Muslim, also spelled Moslem, is an adherent of Islam, a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion based on the Quran, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God as revealed to prophet Muhammad. "Muslim" is the Arabic term for "submitter" .Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable...
since the early 14th century, a strong hostility remained between them and the Ottoman Turks
Ottoman Turks
The Ottoman Turks were the Turkish-speaking population of the Ottoman Empire who formed the base of the state's military and ruling classes. Reliable information about the early history of Ottoman Turks is scarce, but they take their Turkish name, Osmanlı , from the house of Osman I The Ottoman...
as well as the Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
ian Mamluks.
Ironically considering his self-proclaimed title of ghazi(or "Warrior for Islam"), Timur maintained relatively friendly relations with Europe.
Europe at the time was threatened by the invading armies of the Ottoman Turks and was desperate for allies. Timur likewise saw the European states as allies to help him destroy his Ottoman enemies.
After his campaigns in India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
in 1399, Timur took Aleppo
Aleppo
Aleppo is the largest city in Syria and the capital of Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Syrian governorate. With an official population of 2,301,570 , expanding to over 2.5 million in the metropolitan area, it is also one of the largest cities in the Levant...
and Damascus
Damascus
Damascus , commonly known in Syria as Al Sham , and as the City of Jasmine , is the capital and the second largest city of Syria after Aleppo, both are part of the country's 14 governorates. In addition to being one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Damascus is a major...
in 1400. He fought and eventually vanquished the Ottoman ruler Bayazid I at the Battle of Ankara
Battle of Ankara
The Battle of Ankara or Battle of Angora, fought on July 20, 1402, took place at the field of Çubuk between the forces of the Ottoman sultan Bayezid I and the Turko-Mongol forces of Timur, ruler of the Timurid Empire. The battle was a major victory for Timur, and it led to a period of crisis for...
in July 1402.
Relations with Spanish and French Kingdoms
At the time of the Battle of Ankara, two Spanish ambassadors were already with Timur: Pelayo de Sotomayor and Fernando de Palazuelos. There was the possibility of an alliance between Timur and the European states, against the Ottoman Turks that were attacking Europe. There was a clear motive for Timur, who wanted to surround his Ottoman and Mamluk enemies in his offensive alliance.These mirrored attempts towards a Franco-Mongol alliance
Franco-Mongol alliance
Franco-Mongol relations were established in the 13th century, as attempts were made towards forming a Franco-Mongol alliance between the Christian Crusaders and the Mongol Empire against various Muslim empires. Such an alliance would have seemed a logical choice: the Mongols were sympathetic to...
a century before, especially since Ottoman offensives were already threatening Constantinople
Constantinople
Constantinople was the capital of the Roman, Eastern Roman, Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Empires. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.-Names:...
at that time.
Timur sent an ambassador to the court of Charles VI
Charles VI of France
Charles VI , called the Beloved and the Mad , was the King of France from 1380 to 1422, as a member of the House of Valois. His bouts with madness, which seem to have begun in 1392, led to quarrels among the French royal family, which were exploited by the neighbouring powers of England and Burgundy...
, in the person of the Dominican
Dominican Order
The Order of Preachers , after the 15th century more commonly known as the Dominican Order or Dominicans, is a Catholic religious order founded by Saint Dominic and approved by Pope Honorius III on 22 December 1216 in France...
monk Jean, Archbishop of Sultānīya. Jean arrived in Paris on 15 June 1403. Timur's letter was delivered to Charles VI, describing him as:
Timur offered a offensive and defensive alliance to Charles VI, as well as the development of commercial relations. Charles VI was only able to send an answer and an envoy shortly before Timur's death.
Relations with Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
were also developed. In the view of the Spanish historian Miguel Ángel Ochoa Brun, the relations between the courts of Henry III of Castile
Henry III of Castile
Henry III KG , sometimes known as Henry the Sufferer or Henry the Infirm , was the son of John I and Eleanor of Aragon, and succeeded him as King of the Castilian Crown in 1390....
and that of Timur were the most important episode of the mediaeval Castiian
Kingdom of Castile
Kingdom of Castile was one of the medieval kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula. It emerged as a political autonomous entity in the 9th century. It was called County of Castile and was held in vassalage from the Kingdom of León. Its name comes from the host of castles constructed in the region...
diplomacy.
Timur sent to the court of Castile
Kingdom of Castile
Kingdom of Castile was one of the medieval kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula. It emerged as a political autonomous entity in the 9th century. It was called County of Castile and was held in vassalage from the Kingdom of León. Its name comes from the host of castles constructed in the region...
and León
Kingdom of León
The Kingdom of León was an independent kingdom situated in the northwest region of the Iberian Peninsula. It was founded in AD 910 when the Christian princes of Asturias along the northern coast of the peninsula shifted their capital from Oviedo to the city of León...
a Chagatay
Chagatai Khanate
The Chagatai Khanate was a Turko-Mongol khanate that comprised the lands ruled by Chagatai Khan , second son of the Great Khan Genghis Khan, and his descendents and successors...
ambassador named Hajji Muhammad al-Qazi with letters and gifts.
Embassy of Ruy González de Clavijo
In return, the King Henry III of Castile sent a famous embassy to Timur's court in Samarqand in 1403-06, led by Ruy Gonzales de ClavijoRuy Gonzáles de Clavijo
Ruy González de Clavijo was a Castilian traveller and writer. In 1403-05 Clavijo was the ambassador of Henry III of Castile to the court of Timur, founder and ruler of the Timurid Empire...
, with two other ambassadors, Alfonso Paez and Gomez de Salazar. On their return, Timur affirmed that he regarded the king of Spain "as his very own son".
According to Clavijo, Timur's good treatment of the Spanish delegation contrasted with the disdain shown by his host toward the envoys of the "lord of Cathay
Cathay
Cathay is the Anglicized version of "Catai" and an alternative name for China in English. It originates from the word Khitan, the name of a nomadic people who founded the Liao Dynasty which ruled much of Northern China from 907 to 1125, and who had a state of their own centered around today's...
" (i.e., the Ming Dynasty
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
Yongle Emperor
Yongle Emperor
The Yongle Emperor , born Zhu Di , was the third emperor of the Ming Dynasty of China from 1402 to 1424. His Chinese era name Yongle means "Perpetual Happiness".He was the Prince of Yan , possessing a heavy military base in Beiping...
). The Chinese ruler, whose title was "lord of the realms of the face of the earth",
was called by Timur (to Clavijo's face) a "thief and a bad man", and his ambassadors were seated below the Spaniards.
Clavijo's visit to Samarkand allowed him to report to the European audience on the news from Cathay
Cathay
Cathay is the Anglicized version of "Catai" and an alternative name for China in English. It originates from the word Khitan, the name of a nomadic people who founded the Liao Dynasty which ruled much of Northern China from 907 to 1125, and who had a state of their own centered around today's...
(China), which few Europeans had been able to visit directly in the century that had passed since the travels of Marco Polo
Marco Polo
Marco Polo was a Venetian merchant traveler from the Venetian Republic whose travels are recorded in Il Milione, a book which did much to introduce Europeans to Central Asia and China. He learned about trading whilst his father and uncle, Niccolò and Maffeo, travelled through Asia and apparently...
. Clavijo's account reported, even if in a garbled form, on the recent civil war between the descendants of the Hongwu Emperor
Hongwu Emperor
The Hongwu Emperor , known variably by his given name Zhu Yuanzhang and by his temple name Taizu of Ming , was the founder and first emperor of the Ming Dynasty of China...
. The Spanish were able to talk to some of the Chinese visitors, and learned about the caravan
Camel train
A camel train is a series of camels carrying goods or passengers in a group as part of a regular or semi-regular service between two points. Although they rarely travelled faster than the walking speed of a man, camels' ability to handle harsh conditions made camel trains a vital part of...
routes between Samarkand and Cambalu (Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
). Besides telling the European readers about the Cathayan capital Cambalu, which he was told was "the largest city in the world", and the mighty armies of that country, Clavijo also - mistakenly - reported that the new emperor of Cathay had converted to Catholicism. Thus his report served as one of the factors supporting the European belief in the widespread presence of Christianity
Prester John
The legends of Prester John were popular in Europe from the 12th through the 17th centuries, and told of a Christian patriarch and king said to rule over a Christian nation lost amidst the Muslims and pagans in the Orient. Written accounts of this kingdom are variegated collections of medieval...
in Cathay, which was to persist until the early 17th century and to be one of the reasons for sending the famed Bento de Góis expedition in 1603.
Other and later relations
Timur died in 1405, however, his son Shah RukhShah Rukh (Timurid dynasty)
Shāhrukh Mīrzā was the ruler of the eastern portion of the empire established by the Central Asian warlord Timur - the founder of the Timurid dynasty - governing most of Persia and Transoxiana between 1405 and 1447...
's campaigns against the Ottomans continued to create hope in Christian
Christian
A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...
Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
that the invading Islamic armies of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
might be diverted away from Europe.
A Bavarian adventurer, J. Schiltberger, is known to have remained in the service of Timur from 1402 to 1405. Also, numerous Venetian and Genoese traders were active in Sultaniya
Soltaniyeh
Soltaniyeh is a city in and capital of Soltaniyeh District of Abhar County, Zanjan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 5,684, in 1,649 families. Soltaniyeh, located some to the north-west of Tehran, used to be the capital of Mongol Ilkhanid rulers of Persia in the 14th century....
at that time, since the time of their establishment in Sultaniya under the Il-Khanids.
The next contacts between Europe and Persia would be those of the Venetian traveler Niccolo da Conti
Niccolò Da Conti
Niccolò de' Conti was an Italian merchant and explorer of the Republic of Venice, born in Chioggia, who traveled to India and Southeast Asia, and possibly to Southern China, during the early 15th century...
from 1420 to 1425. Contacts failed to develop much further thereafter, although Spain's desire for rapprochement with the Mongols remained until the time of Christopher Colombus in 1492, whose objective was to reach the Great Khan in China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
.
The story of Tamerlane has a long legacy associated with Orientalism
Orientalism
Orientalism is a term used for the imitation or depiction of aspects of Eastern cultures in the West by writers, designers and artists, as well as having other meanings...
in Europe, with such publications as Tamburlaine the Great by Christopher Marlowe
Christopher Marlowe
Christopher Marlowe was an English dramatist, poet and translator of the Elizabethan era. As the foremost Elizabethan tragedian, next to William Shakespeare, he is known for his blank verse, his overreaching protagonists, and his mysterious death.A warrant was issued for Marlowe's arrest on 18 May...
in 1590, or Handel
HANDEL
HANDEL was the code-name for the UK's National Attack Warning System in the Cold War. It consisted of a small console consisting of two microphones, lights and gauges. The reason behind this was to provide a back-up if anything failed....
's opera Tamerlano in 1724.