United Freedom Front
Encyclopedia
The United Freedom Front (UFF) was a small American Marxist organization active in the 1970s and 1980s. It was originally called the Sam Melville
/Jonathan Jackson Unit, and its members became known as the Ohio 7 when they were brought to trial. Between 1975 and 1984 the UFF carried out at least 20 bombings and nine bank robberies in the northeastern United States, targeting corporate buildings, courthouses, and military facilities. Brent L. Smith describes them as "undoubtedly the most successful of the leftist terrorists of the 1970s and 1980s." The group's members were eventually apprehended and convicted of conspiracy, murder, attempted murder, and other charges. Two, Tom Manning
and Jaan Laaman
, remain incarcerated today.
under that name, but changed its name to the United Freedom Front the same year. The initial members were Raymond Luc Levasseur
(the UFF's leader), Tom Manning
, and their respective spouses, Patricia Gros and Carole Manning. Levasseur and Tom Manning were both Vietnam War
veterans and ex-convicts. The four had worked together in prison reform groups before forming the UFF. Four other members joined the group in the following years: Jaan Laaman
and Barbara Curzi (another married couple), Kazi Toure (born Christopher King), and Richard Williams.
The UFF strongly opposed US foreign policy in Central America
, as well as South African apartheid.
The UFF's targets included South African Airways
, Union Carbide
, IBM
, Mobil
, courthouses, and military facilities. The UFF called in warnings before all of its bombings, attempting to avoid casualties. However, 22 people were injured in one 1976 bombing at the Suffolk County Courthouse in Boston, including a courthouse worker who lost a leg. The group was most active in the early 1980s. The UFF's members lived undercover in middle-class suburbs.
Toure was captured in North Attleboro, Massachusetts in 1982. Two state troopers were wounded in the course of arresting him. On November 4, 1984, police apprehended Levasseur and Gros near Deerfield, Ohio, and Laaman, Curzi, and Williams in Cleveland. The Mannings were captured six months later in Norfolk, Virginia. Gus notes that the UFF was "the most enduring of all New Left terrorist groups of the era," evading capture for almost a decade.
and racketeering. Eventually five accepted plea bargains, had charges against them dropped, or were tried separately, and the trial of the remaining three ended in 1989 with an acquittal for sedition and a locked jury on the racketeering charges. Thomas Manning and Richard Williams were given life sentences for the 1981 murder of state trooper Philip Lamonaco, and Laaman was convicted in the 1982 attempted murder of two state troopers. The well-known radical lawyer William Kunstler
represented UFF members in some of these proceedings.
Toure, Curzi, Gros, and Carol Manning were released during the 1990s, and Levasseur was released in November 2004. Williams died in prison in December 2005, and Tom Manning and Laaman remain in prison.
Sam Melville
Samuel Joseph Melville , was the principal conspirator and bomb setter in the 1969 bombings of eight government and commercial office buildings in New York City. Melville cited his opposition to the Vietnam War and U.S. imperialism as the motivation for the bombings...
/Jonathan Jackson Unit, and its members became known as the Ohio 7 when they were brought to trial. Between 1975 and 1984 the UFF carried out at least 20 bombings and nine bank robberies in the northeastern United States, targeting corporate buildings, courthouses, and military facilities. Brent L. Smith describes them as "undoubtedly the most successful of the leftist terrorists of the 1970s and 1980s." The group's members were eventually apprehended and convicted of conspiracy, murder, attempted murder, and other charges. Two, Tom Manning
Tom Manning (prisoner)
Born to a Boston postal clerk, Thomas "Tom" William Manning is known for his involvement in the murder of a police officer during a routine traffic stop, and for his involvement with the United Freedom Front who bombed a series of US military and commercial institutes in the 1970s and early...
and Jaan Laaman
Jaan Laaman
Jaan Karl Laaman grew up in Roxbury, Massachusetts and Buffalo, New York. His family emigrated to the US from Estonia when he was a child. He has a son...
, remain incarcerated today.
Activities
The group was founded in 1975 as the Sam Melville/Jonathan Jackson Unit, setting off a bomb at the Massachusetts State HouseMassachusetts State House
The Massachusetts State House, also known as the Massachusetts Statehouse or the "New" State House, is the state capitol and house of government of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. It is located in Boston in the neighborhood Beacon Hill...
under that name, but changed its name to the United Freedom Front the same year. The initial members were Raymond Luc Levasseur
Raymond Luc Levasseur
Raymond "Ray" Luc Levasseur was a member of the United Freedom Front, a militant Marxist organization that conducted a series of bombings throughout the United States from 1976 to 1984.-Early life:...
(the UFF's leader), Tom Manning
Tom Manning (prisoner)
Born to a Boston postal clerk, Thomas "Tom" William Manning is known for his involvement in the murder of a police officer during a routine traffic stop, and for his involvement with the United Freedom Front who bombed a series of US military and commercial institutes in the 1970s and early...
, and their respective spouses, Patricia Gros and Carole Manning. Levasseur and Tom Manning were both Vietnam War
Vietnam War
The Vietnam War was a Cold War-era military conflict that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. This war followed the First Indochina War and was fought between North Vietnam, supported by its communist allies, and the government of...
veterans and ex-convicts. The four had worked together in prison reform groups before forming the UFF. Four other members joined the group in the following years: Jaan Laaman
Jaan Laaman
Jaan Karl Laaman grew up in Roxbury, Massachusetts and Buffalo, New York. His family emigrated to the US from Estonia when he was a child. He has a son...
and Barbara Curzi (another married couple), Kazi Toure (born Christopher King), and Richard Williams.
The UFF strongly opposed US foreign policy in Central America
Central America
Central America is the central geographic region of the Americas. It is the southernmost, isthmian portion of the North American continent, which connects with South America on the southeast. When considered part of the unified continental model, it is considered a subcontinent...
, as well as South African apartheid.
The UFF's targets included South African Airways
South African Airways
South African Airways is the national flag carrier and largest airline of South Africa, with headquarters in Airways Park on the grounds of OR Tambo International Airport in Kempton Park, Ekurhuleni, Gauteng. The airline flies to 36 destinations worldwide from its hub at OR Tambo International...
, Union Carbide
Union Carbide
Union Carbide Corporation is a wholly owned subsidiary of The Dow Chemical Company. It currently employs more than 2,400 people. Union Carbide primarily produces chemicals and polymers that undergo one or more further conversions by customers before reaching consumers. Some are high-volume...
, IBM
IBM
International Business Machines Corporation or IBM is an American multinational technology and consulting corporation headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States. IBM manufactures and sells computer hardware and software, and it offers infrastructure, hosting and consulting services in areas...
, Mobil
Mobil
Mobil, previously known as the Socony-Vacuum Oil Company, was a major American oil company which merged with Exxon in 1999 to form ExxonMobil. Today Mobil continues as a major brand name within the combined company, as well as still being a gas station sometimes paired with their own store or On...
, courthouses, and military facilities. The UFF called in warnings before all of its bombings, attempting to avoid casualties. However, 22 people were injured in one 1976 bombing at the Suffolk County Courthouse in Boston, including a courthouse worker who lost a leg. The group was most active in the early 1980s. The UFF's members lived undercover in middle-class suburbs.
Toure was captured in North Attleboro, Massachusetts in 1982. Two state troopers were wounded in the course of arresting him. On November 4, 1984, police apprehended Levasseur and Gros near Deerfield, Ohio, and Laaman, Curzi, and Williams in Cleveland. The Mannings were captured six months later in Norfolk, Virginia. Gus notes that the UFF was "the most enduring of all New Left terrorist groups of the era," evading capture for almost a decade.
Trials and imprisonment
The UFF's members were tried repeatedly on various federal and state charges. In March 1986, seven of them (the so-called "Ohio Seven") were convicted of conspiracy, receiving sentences ranging from 15 to 53 years. In 1987 all eight members were charged with seditionSedition
In law, sedition is overt conduct, such as speech and organization, that is deemed by the legal authority to tend toward insurrection against the established order. Sedition often includes subversion of a constitution and incitement of discontent to lawful authority. Sedition may include any...
and racketeering. Eventually five accepted plea bargains, had charges against them dropped, or were tried separately, and the trial of the remaining three ended in 1989 with an acquittal for sedition and a locked jury on the racketeering charges. Thomas Manning and Richard Williams were given life sentences for the 1981 murder of state trooper Philip Lamonaco, and Laaman was convicted in the 1982 attempted murder of two state troopers. The well-known radical lawyer William Kunstler
William Kunstler
William Moses Kunstler was an American self-described "radical lawyer" and civil rights activist, known for his controversial clients...
represented UFF members in some of these proceedings.
Toure, Curzi, Gros, and Carol Manning were released during the 1990s, and Levasseur was released in November 2004. Williams died in prison in December 2005, and Tom Manning and Laaman remain in prison.
Further reference
- "Group Hit Other Targets, FBI Believes," Ronald Kessler, 11/09/1983, Washington Post
- "Case-Study of US Domestic Terrorism: United Freedom Front," Phillip Jenkins
- "After 13 Bombings, FBI Says Terrorists Remain a Mystery," Rick Hampson, 09/27/1984, AP
External links
- Case Study: The United Freedom Front
- Terrorist Organization Profile: United Freedom Front (UFF) Profile from the Terrorism Knowledge Base