Uprising of Ivaylo
Encyclopedia
The Uprising of Ivaylo was an uprising of the Bulgarian
peasantry against the Emperor Constantine Tikh
and the Bulgarian nobility. The revolt was fuelled by resentment at the beginning feudalization of the Bulgarian Empire
, as well as by the failure to confront the Mongol menace over north-eastern Bulgaria, especially the region of Dobrudzha. Ivaylo proved to be a successful general, defeating the Mongols and the Tsar
's armies, and forced the nobility to recognize him as Emperor of Bulgaria.
The Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos
tried to exploit this situation and to help the nobility to quell the rebellion, but the Byzantines suffered two major defeats at the hands of Ivaylo. The Mongol intervention however forced him to flee to the important fortress of Silistra
, where he was besieged. Thereupon, the nobility used his absence from the capital Tarnovo to proclaim George Terter I
as emperor. Surrounded by enemies and with diminished support, Ivaylo had to flee to Nogai Khan
and was later murdered by the Mongols.
in 1241, the large Bulgarian Empire began to decline. Following a succession of infant emperors, the country lost large portions of Thrace
and Macedonia
to the Nicaean Empire, and lands to the north-west, including Belgrade
and Severin Banat, to the Kingdom of Hungary
. The country failed to cope with the constant Mongol invasions after the 1240s and the regency of Kaliman I Asen
(1241–1246) was forced to pay an annual tribute to the Mongols. Between 1256 and 1257 the country descended into a civil war out of which the bolyar of Skopie Constantine Tikh
emerged as victor. His 20 year-long reign however did not bring stability to Bulgaria. After he broke his leg during hunting, Constantine Tikh fell under the influence of his second wife Irene Doukaina Laskarina
, who was constantly involved in intrigues with her relatives in the Byzantine court. Later he left the state affairs to his third wife, Maria Palaiologina Kantakouzene. Throughout that period, the Mongols regularly campaigned in north-eastern Bulgaria looting the countryside and paralyzing the economy. In parallel with that the development of feudalism in Bulgaria during the second half of the 13th century led to a sharp change in the situation for the peasantry for the worse. Not only were the peasants were dependent on the central government, the nobility and the Church but they were constantly losing personal freedoms. The Mongol invasions shattered the pillars of the state institutions in Dobrudzha. and facilitated the break out of the uprising and its fast development.
In this situation Ivaylo, a peasant from north-eastern Bulgaria, began to incite the population to a revolt, claiming that God had given him signs to lead the people against the nobility. In fact his mysticism was deliberately used to gain followers among the religious peasants and the rebellion was carefully prepared. The people considered Ivaylo to be the "Good Tsar" - the ideal ruler who would spread equality between rich and poor. Thus he managed to gather many supporters for short time.
The rebellion began in the spring or as late as the summer of 1277. The rebels first marched against the Mongols who plundered the Bulgarian people due to the passiveness of the state. The uprising began in the regions where the Mongol invasions were strongest. In the summer of that year, Ivaylo's forces defeated a Mongol unit looting the north-east and soon after that scored another victory against them. Having achieved a feat that had eluded the Bulgarian arms for decades, his popularity rose quickly. By the autumn of 1277, the Mongols were completely driven out of Bulgarian territory. Ivaylo was hailed as Emperor by the people and many areas came under his control.
In the end of 1277, Constantine Tikh finally launched a campaign against the rebels. His small army moved slowly because of his leg pains. Ivaylo ambushed this force, killing many of the Emperor's close associates, while the rest of the army joined the rebels. Ivaylo personally killed Constantine Tikh, justifying his act with the claim that the Emperor did nothing in the battle to keep his honour. After his triumph, Ivailo began to seize the country's fortified cities, which surrendered and recognized him as Emperor one by one. Soon only Tarnovo remained under the control of Empress Maria.
The death of the Bulgarian ruler was a shock for the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos
, who had previously left Constantinople
for Adrianople in order to monitor the situation in Bulgaria closely. He had plans to exploit the crisis in Bulgaria for his own purposes, but after it became clear that the rebellion was a struggle between the classes, he prepared to help the Bulgarian nobility out of fear that this might spread to Byzantium as well. Michael VIII found a pretender to the Bulgarian throne - Ivan, son of Mitso Asen
, who lived in the Byzantine Empire. Ivan was married to Michael's daughter and proclaimed Emperor of Bulgaria under the name Ivan Asen III
. The Byzantines sent ambassadors to Tarnovo to persuade Empress Maria to give up the throne, while the Byzantine army headed to the north.
What happened next came as a surprise for the Byzantines. Maria started negotiations with Ivaylo and offered him her hand and the Bulgarian crown. The Byzantine historians accused her of ignoring her moral duty to her dead husband, but her decision was driven by her hatred towards her uncle Michael VIII, as well as her desire to hang on to power. At first she wanted to rule alone, but eventually she conceded sharing the authority with Ivaylo, on condition that he would guarantee the rights of her son Micheal as sole successor. Ivaylo on the other hand was reluctant to make a deal, claiming that Maria was giving him what he was about to take by force. He further feared that such agreement would run counter to the social aims of the uprising, and would be seen as a betrayal by his followers. However, eventually Ivaylo accepted "because of the peace and the will not to shed blood in internecine war".
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On the summer of 1278 Ivaylo entered the capital triumphantly and received the imperial insignia. Bulgaria was united under the rule of the people's Tsar, but the country's problems were far from over. The Byzantine Emperor continued with his attempts to depose Ivaylo and sent armies under the famous general Michael Glava, who was defeated twice by the Bulgarians. At the same time he persuaded the Mongols to invade Bulgaria from the north. In the capital the situation was also grim - Ivaylo failed to gain the support of the nobility and often quarreled with his wife.
In the beginning of his new campaign Ivaylo managed to push the Mongols back to the north of the Danube
. However, the Byzantines were more dangerous and attacked on a wide front from the Shipka Pass
to the Black Sea
. Despite his tactical talent, Micheal Glava failed to achieve any victory - the Bulgarian castles in the Balkan Mountains
, led by Ivaylo's generals Mimchil, Kuman, Damyan, Kancho and Stan, repulsed all attacks. The struggle between Bulgarians and Byzantines was bitter, with Ivaylo taking no prisoners. Despite their huge efforts, the Byzantine troops were defeated in the summer and autumn of 1278.
After Ivaylo consolidated his positions in the south, he again had to turn northwards to face the Mongols. This time the war was hard and long. Unlike before, now Ivaylo faced the elite forces of Nogai Khan
. The Mongols prevailed and Ivaylo took refuge in the fortress of Drastar (Silistra
) where he was besieged for three months. That setback led to the betrayal of the Tarnovo nobility. Upon the news of the defeat, and amidst rumours that Ivaylo had perished, the bolyars declared themselves for Ivan Asen III. Empress Maria, who was pregnant by Ivaylo, was deposed and sent to exile in Constantinople.
A few months later however, Ivaylo managed to break through the Mongol blockade. His army appeared in the outskirts of Tarnovo and Ivan Asen III was blockaded in the capital. Michael VIII immediately took measures to protect his son-in-law and in the summer of 1279 a 10,000-strong Byzantine army under the protovestiarios
Murin headed to Bulgaria. On 17 July Ivaylo charged the Byzantines at Devina, where, despite being outnumbered, the Bulgarians scored a victory. Many Byzantines perished on the battlefield and the captives were killed by orders of Ivaylo. Only a month later the Byzantine Emperor sent another army of 5,000 troops under the protovestiarios Aprin. The exact location of the battle is unknown - according to the Byzantine historians it took place in the mountain passes of eastern Stara Planina - but on 15 August the invaders were crushed after a long fight and their leader was killed. Ivaylo personally commanded his army in both battles.
, George Terter I
, one of the country's most powerful and influential nobles, for Emperor. Those events were crucial to Ivaylo's fate: the peasant Tsar faced the united forces of the Bulgarian feudal lords, while morale in his army was low and his support among the people, disappointed by the endless wars, waning. With only a few loyal supporters left, in the end of 1280 Ivaylo was forced to flee to Nogai Khan and ask for help to regain his crown. Although Nogai initially favoured Ivaylo, eventually he had him assassinated after a plea from his ally, Michael VIII.
For Bulgaria the two decades that followed the death of Ivaylo marked the lowest point of decline of the Second Empire
, with constant Mongol interference in the state's internal affairs and progressive disintegration of the central authority in favour of feudal magnates. During that period the Byzantines occupied most of the remaining Bulgarian possessions in Thrace
. From 1300 however the country revived under the rule of Theodore Svetoslav
.
Bulgarians
The Bulgarians are a South Slavic nation and ethnic group native to Bulgaria and neighbouring regions. Emigration has resulted in immigrant communities in a number of other countries.-History and ethnogenesis:...
peasantry against the Emperor Constantine Tikh
Constantine Tikh of Bulgaria
Constantine I , which includes the shortened form of the name of his father as a patronymic), ruled as emperor of Bulgaria from 1257 to 1277....
and the Bulgarian nobility. The revolt was fuelled by resentment at the beginning feudalization of the Bulgarian Empire
Second Bulgarian Empire
The Second Bulgarian Empire was a medieval Bulgarian state which existed between 1185 and 1396 . A successor of the First Bulgarian Empire, it reached the peak of its power under Kaloyan and Ivan Asen II before gradually being conquered by the Ottomans in the late 14th-early 15th century...
, as well as by the failure to confront the Mongol menace over north-eastern Bulgaria, especially the region of Dobrudzha. Ivaylo proved to be a successful general, defeating the Mongols and the Tsar
Tsar
Tsar is a title used to designate certain European Slavic monarchs or supreme rulers. As a system of government in the Tsardom of Russia and Russian Empire, it is known as Tsarist autocracy, or Tsarism...
's armies, and forced the nobility to recognize him as Emperor of Bulgaria.
The Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos
Michael VIII Palaiologos
Michael VIII Palaiologos or Palaeologus reigned as Byzantine Emperor 1259–1282. Michael VIII was the founder of the Palaiologan dynasty that would rule the Byzantine Empire until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453...
tried to exploit this situation and to help the nobility to quell the rebellion, but the Byzantines suffered two major defeats at the hands of Ivaylo. The Mongol intervention however forced him to flee to the important fortress of Silistra
Silistra
Silistra is a port city of northeastern Bulgaria, lying on the southern bank of the lower Danube at the country's border with Romania. Silistra is the administrative centre of Silistra Province and one of the important cities of the historical region of Southern Dobrudzha...
, where he was besieged. Thereupon, the nobility used his absence from the capital Tarnovo to proclaim George Terter I
George I of Bulgaria
George Terter I ruled as emperor of Bulgaria 1280-1292. The date of his birth is unknown, and he died in 1308/1309.The reign of George Terter I represents a continuation of Bulgaria's precipitous decline during the second half of the 13th century...
as emperor. Surrounded by enemies and with diminished support, Ivaylo had to flee to Nogai Khan
Nogai Khan
Nogai , also called Isa Nogai, was a general and de facto ruler of the Golden Horde and a great-great-grandson of Genghis Khan. His grandfather was Baul/Teval Khan, the 7th son of Jochi...
and was later murdered by the Mongols.
Background
After the death of Ivan Asen IIIvan Asen II of Bulgaria
-Early rule:He was a son of Ivan Asen I of Bulgaria and Elena . Elena, who survived until after 1235, is sometimes alleged to be a daughter of Stefan Nemanja of Serbia, but this relationship is questionable and would have caused various canonical impediments to marriages between various descendants...
in 1241, the large Bulgarian Empire began to decline. Following a succession of infant emperors, the country lost large portions of Thrace
Thrace
Thrace is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe. As a geographical concept, Thrace designates a region bounded by the Balkan Mountains on the north, Rhodope Mountains and the Aegean Sea on the south, and by the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara on the east...
and Macedonia
Macedonia (region)
Macedonia is a geographical and historical region of the Balkan peninsula in southeastern Europe. Its boundaries have changed considerably over time, but nowadays the region is considered to include parts of five Balkan countries: Greece, the Republic of Macedonia, Bulgaria, Albania, Serbia, as...
to the Nicaean Empire, and lands to the north-west, including Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade is the capital and largest city of Serbia. It is located at the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers, where the Pannonian Plain meets the Balkans. According to official results of Census 2011, the city has a population of 1,639,121. It is one of the 15 largest cities in Europe...
and Severin Banat, to the Kingdom of Hungary
Kingdom of Hungary in the Middle Ages
The Kingdom of Hungary was formed from the previous Principality of Hungarywith the coronation of Stephen I in AD 1000. This was a result of the conversion of Géza of Hungary to the Western Church in the 970s....
. The country failed to cope with the constant Mongol invasions after the 1240s and the regency of Kaliman I Asen
Kaliman I of Bulgaria
Kaliman Asen I , reigned as emperor of Bulgaria from 1241 to 1246. Kaliman Asen I was the son of Ivan Asen II and Anna Maria of Hungary. His maternal grandparents were Andrew II of Hungary and Gertrude of Merania....
(1241–1246) was forced to pay an annual tribute to the Mongols. Between 1256 and 1257 the country descended into a civil war out of which the bolyar of Skopie Constantine Tikh
Constantine Tikh of Bulgaria
Constantine I , which includes the shortened form of the name of his father as a patronymic), ruled as emperor of Bulgaria from 1257 to 1277....
emerged as victor. His 20 year-long reign however did not bring stability to Bulgaria. After he broke his leg during hunting, Constantine Tikh fell under the influence of his second wife Irene Doukaina Laskarina
Irene Doukaina Laskarina
Irene Doukaina Laskarina was empress consort of Bulgaria . She was second wife of Tsar Constantine Tikh of Bulgaria.She was a daughter of Theodore II Laskaris, emperor of Nikaea, and his wife Elena of Bulgaria. Irene was a sister of Byzantine emperor John IV Laskaris...
, who was constantly involved in intrigues with her relatives in the Byzantine court. Later he left the state affairs to his third wife, Maria Palaiologina Kantakouzene. Throughout that period, the Mongols regularly campaigned in north-eastern Bulgaria looting the countryside and paralyzing the economy. In parallel with that the development of feudalism in Bulgaria during the second half of the 13th century led to a sharp change in the situation for the peasantry for the worse. Not only were the peasants were dependent on the central government, the nobility and the Church but they were constantly losing personal freedoms. The Mongol invasions shattered the pillars of the state institutions in Dobrudzha. and facilitated the break out of the uprising and its fast development.
In this situation Ivaylo, a peasant from north-eastern Bulgaria, began to incite the population to a revolt, claiming that God had given him signs to lead the people against the nobility. In fact his mysticism was deliberately used to gain followers among the religious peasants and the rebellion was carefully prepared. The people considered Ivaylo to be the "Good Tsar" - the ideal ruler who would spread equality between rich and poor. Thus he managed to gather many supporters for short time.
Initial successes
The rebellion began in the spring or as late as the summer of 1277. The rebels first marched against the Mongols who plundered the Bulgarian people due to the passiveness of the state. The uprising began in the regions where the Mongol invasions were strongest. In the summer of that year, Ivaylo's forces defeated a Mongol unit looting the north-east and soon after that scored another victory against them. Having achieved a feat that had eluded the Bulgarian arms for decades, his popularity rose quickly. By the autumn of 1277, the Mongols were completely driven out of Bulgarian territory. Ivaylo was hailed as Emperor by the people and many areas came under his control.
In the end of 1277, Constantine Tikh finally launched a campaign against the rebels. His small army moved slowly because of his leg pains. Ivaylo ambushed this force, killing many of the Emperor's close associates, while the rest of the army joined the rebels. Ivaylo personally killed Constantine Tikh, justifying his act with the claim that the Emperor did nothing in the battle to keep his honour. After his triumph, Ivailo began to seize the country's fortified cities, which surrendered and recognized him as Emperor one by one. Soon only Tarnovo remained under the control of Empress Maria.
The death of the Bulgarian ruler was a shock for the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos
Michael VIII Palaiologos
Michael VIII Palaiologos or Palaeologus reigned as Byzantine Emperor 1259–1282. Michael VIII was the founder of the Palaiologan dynasty that would rule the Byzantine Empire until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453...
, who had previously left Constantinople
Constantinople
Constantinople was the capital of the Roman, Eastern Roman, Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Empires. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.-Names:...
for Adrianople in order to monitor the situation in Bulgaria closely. He had plans to exploit the crisis in Bulgaria for his own purposes, but after it became clear that the rebellion was a struggle between the classes, he prepared to help the Bulgarian nobility out of fear that this might spread to Byzantium as well. Michael VIII found a pretender to the Bulgarian throne - Ivan, son of Mitso Asen
Mitso Asen of Bulgaria
-Reign:Mitso Asen ascended the throne by virtue of his marriage to Maria, a daughter of Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria by Irene Komnene of Epirus. The dates of his birth and death are unknown...
, who lived in the Byzantine Empire. Ivan was married to Michael's daughter and proclaimed Emperor of Bulgaria under the name Ivan Asen III
Ivan Asen III of Bulgaria
Ivan Asen III , ruled as emperor of Bulgaria 1279–1280. Ivan Asen III was the son of Mitso Asen of Bulgaria and Maria of Bulgaria, a daughter of Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria and Irene of Thessalonica...
. The Byzantines sent ambassadors to Tarnovo to persuade Empress Maria to give up the throne, while the Byzantine army headed to the north.
What happened next came as a surprise for the Byzantines. Maria started negotiations with Ivaylo and offered him her hand and the Bulgarian crown. The Byzantine historians accused her of ignoring her moral duty to her dead husband, but her decision was driven by her hatred towards her uncle Michael VIII, as well as her desire to hang on to power. At first she wanted to rule alone, but eventually she conceded sharing the authority with Ivaylo, on condition that he would guarantee the rights of her son Micheal as sole successor. Ivaylo on the other hand was reluctant to make a deal, claiming that Maria was giving him what he was about to take by force. He further feared that such agreement would run counter to the social aims of the uprising, and would be seen as a betrayal by his followers. However, eventually Ivaylo accepted "because of the peace and the will not to shed blood in internecine war".
Recognition of Ivaylo and campaigns against Byzantines and Mongols
In the beginning of his new campaign Ivaylo managed to push the Mongols back to the north of the Danube
Danube
The Danube is a river in the Central Europe and the Europe's second longest river after the Volga. It is classified as an international waterway....
. However, the Byzantines were more dangerous and attacked on a wide front from the Shipka Pass
Shipka Pass
Shipka Pass is a scenic mountain pass through the Balkan Mountains in Bulgaria. It marks the border between Stara Zagora province and Gabrovo province. The pass connects Gabrovo and Kazanlak. The pass is part of the Bulgarka Nature Park.The pass is 13 km by road north of the small town of...
to the Black Sea
Black Sea
The Black Sea is bounded by Europe, Anatolia and the Caucasus and is ultimately connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Mediterranean and the Aegean seas and various straits. The Bosphorus strait connects it to the Sea of Marmara, and the strait of the Dardanelles connects that sea to the Aegean...
. Despite his tactical talent, Micheal Glava failed to achieve any victory - the Bulgarian castles in the Balkan Mountains
Balkan Mountains
The Balkan mountain range is a mountain range in the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula. The Balkan range runs 560 km from the Vrashka Chuka Peak on the border between Bulgaria and eastern Serbia eastward through central Bulgaria to Cape Emine on the Black Sea...
, led by Ivaylo's generals Mimchil, Kuman, Damyan, Kancho and Stan, repulsed all attacks. The struggle between Bulgarians and Byzantines was bitter, with Ivaylo taking no prisoners. Despite their huge efforts, the Byzantine troops were defeated in the summer and autumn of 1278.
After Ivaylo consolidated his positions in the south, he again had to turn northwards to face the Mongols. This time the war was hard and long. Unlike before, now Ivaylo faced the elite forces of Nogai Khan
Nogai Khan
Nogai , also called Isa Nogai, was a general and de facto ruler of the Golden Horde and a great-great-grandson of Genghis Khan. His grandfather was Baul/Teval Khan, the 7th son of Jochi...
. The Mongols prevailed and Ivaylo took refuge in the fortress of Drastar (Silistra
Silistra
Silistra is a port city of northeastern Bulgaria, lying on the southern bank of the lower Danube at the country's border with Romania. Silistra is the administrative centre of Silistra Province and one of the important cities of the historical region of Southern Dobrudzha...
) where he was besieged for three months. That setback led to the betrayal of the Tarnovo nobility. Upon the news of the defeat, and amidst rumours that Ivaylo had perished, the bolyars declared themselves for Ivan Asen III. Empress Maria, who was pregnant by Ivaylo, was deposed and sent to exile in Constantinople.
A few months later however, Ivaylo managed to break through the Mongol blockade. His army appeared in the outskirts of Tarnovo and Ivan Asen III was blockaded in the capital. Michael VIII immediately took measures to protect his son-in-law and in the summer of 1279 a 10,000-strong Byzantine army under the protovestiarios
Protovestiarios
Protovestiarios was a high Byzantine court position, originally reserved for eunuchs.-History and functions:The title is first attested in 412, as the comes sacrae vestis, an official in charge of the Byzantine emperor's "sacred wardrobe" , coming under the praepositus sacri cubiculi...
Murin headed to Bulgaria. On 17 July Ivaylo charged the Byzantines at Devina, where, despite being outnumbered, the Bulgarians scored a victory. Many Byzantines perished on the battlefield and the captives were killed by orders of Ivaylo. Only a month later the Byzantine Emperor sent another army of 5,000 troops under the protovestiarios Aprin. The exact location of the battle is unknown - according to the Byzantine historians it took place in the mountain passes of eastern Stara Planina - but on 15 August the invaders were crushed after a long fight and their leader was killed. Ivaylo personally commanded his army in both battles.
End of the rebellion
The position of Ivan Asen III was shaken and he had to flee from Tarnovo, while the Bulgarian nobility proclaimed the bolyar of ChervenCherven (fortress)
The stronghold of Cherven was one of the Second Bulgarian Empire's primary military, administrative, economic and cultural centres between the 12th and the 14th century...
, George Terter I
George I of Bulgaria
George Terter I ruled as emperor of Bulgaria 1280-1292. The date of his birth is unknown, and he died in 1308/1309.The reign of George Terter I represents a continuation of Bulgaria's precipitous decline during the second half of the 13th century...
, one of the country's most powerful and influential nobles, for Emperor. Those events were crucial to Ivaylo's fate: the peasant Tsar faced the united forces of the Bulgarian feudal lords, while morale in his army was low and his support among the people, disappointed by the endless wars, waning. With only a few loyal supporters left, in the end of 1280 Ivaylo was forced to flee to Nogai Khan and ask for help to regain his crown. Although Nogai initially favoured Ivaylo, eventually he had him assassinated after a plea from his ally, Michael VIII.
Consequences
Although ultimately unsuccessful, the uprising of Ivaylo had achieved a recognition of his leader as Emperor, an aim in which all other peasant uprisings in medieval Europe failed. Despite his inability to establish a new social order in favour of the ordinary people, Ivaylo remained in the memory of the Bulgarian people as a fighter for justice, freedom and equality. He was also famous among his contemporaries and later several other popular rebellions in the Balkans were led by a "Fake Ivaylo".For Bulgaria the two decades that followed the death of Ivaylo marked the lowest point of decline of the Second Empire
Second Bulgarian Empire
The Second Bulgarian Empire was a medieval Bulgarian state which existed between 1185 and 1396 . A successor of the First Bulgarian Empire, it reached the peak of its power under Kaloyan and Ivan Asen II before gradually being conquered by the Ottomans in the late 14th-early 15th century...
, with constant Mongol interference in the state's internal affairs and progressive disintegration of the central authority in favour of feudal magnates. During that period the Byzantines occupied most of the remaining Bulgarian possessions in Thrace
Thrace
Thrace is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe. As a geographical concept, Thrace designates a region bounded by the Balkan Mountains on the north, Rhodope Mountains and the Aegean Sea on the south, and by the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara on the east...
. From 1300 however the country revived under the rule of Theodore Svetoslav
Theodore Svetoslav of Bulgaria
Theodore Svetoslav ruled as emperor of Bulgaria from 1300 to 1322. The date of his birth is unknown. He was a wise and capable ruler who brought stability and relative prosperity to the Bulgarian Empire after two decades of constant Mongol intervention in the internal issues of the Empire...
.