Urban planning in Australia
Encyclopedia
Urban planning in Australia has a significant role to play in ensuring the future sustainability of Australian cities. Australia
is one of the most highly urbanised societies in the world. Continued population growth in Australian cities is placing increasing pressure on infrastructure, such as public transport and roadways, energy, air and water systems within the urban environment.
Urban planning
is undertaken at all levels of Government in Australia. However, the Federal Government is playing an increasing part in setting policy as part of an overall response to developing climate adaptation and mitigation strategies. The local government has also been engaging with the community to make decisions on urban planning designs that help to promote social cohesion. Over the past few decades Australian's have developed a respect for urban heritage places and community groups have fought hard to stop developers from destroying them.
, the United States
of America and western Europe
. However, over the past century, distinctly Australian responses and solutions to Australian urban issues have developed.
The first examples of town planning in Australia occurred during the early phases of the Colonial era, where critical decisions locked in ‘path dependency’ for the future form of cities. Typically this involved colonial Governor
s undertaking surveying for land grant
s and subdivisions, and making executive decisions on the location and construction of road
s, rail transport
, water supply
and other basic infrastructure to support early penal and military settlements. Primacy was given to the functional and practical needs of Colonial administration, as opposed to more lofty civic or aesthetic ideals.Freestone 2007 p.68
Despite these humble, utilitarian beginnings, there were places where clear planning and design for settlements occurred. One of the earliest forms of a planned settlement in Australia involved the work of Colonel William Light, a Colonial Surveyor and the Surveyor-General for the colony of South Australia
, in planning and designing the original city centre grid for Adelaide in 1837. While Light’s plan was not entirely realised, it is widely regarded as a fine achievement of colonial era civic design.
Rapid colonial expansion in the 19th century, matched by economic growth
, resulted in Australia becoming one of the most highly urbanised nations in the world. For example, by 1861, 40% of Sydney’s residents lived in suburbs. This trend towards urbanisation was established early and continued into the 20th century.
Early town planners focused on the orderly planning of cities, closely following international contemporary town planning and urban reform movements (especially from the UK), where urban planning aimed to improve urban health, efficiency and aesthetics.
This concern with civic improvement was expressed in many ways, with citizen groups forming in Australian cities to advocate healthier, more beautiful cities. In Sydney
, this desire to improve planning found its expression through a Royal Commission
into the Improvement of Sydney
and its Suburb
s, which commenced in 1908, focusing on transport
ation, slum
clearance, the future growth of Sydney
, and aesthetics. The Garden City movement, founded by Ebenezer Howard
in the UK, was also influential and was adopted as a design strategy in several areas of Australian cities (such as in Daceyville
in south eastern Sydney).
One of the earliest international contributions made by Australia to urban planning theory and practice resulted from the international competition held to design Australia’s new federal capital, Canberra
, which was held between 1911 and 1912. The winning design was submitted by American architects Walter Burley Griffin
and Marion Mahoney, with the design reflecting state of the art planning concepts from the time. Whilst Canberra
was actually constructed some time after the competition, it still represented an early international example of a planned city.
, particularly from western Europe and, from the 1970s, south east Asia. Furthermore, increasing ownership of the motor car, combined with cheap fuel, resulted in an explosion in the urban form of many Australian urban centres. Many cities were rapidly transformed from modest, medium density centres, supported by public transport
, to a suburban, car dominated city with large, residential dormitory suburbs. As a consequence, population
and land use
become increasingly dispersed. For example, in 1840 40% of Sydney’s residents lived in suburbs, while by the 1960s this figure had risen to over 70%.
Australia’s long period of post war economic growth
resulted in Federal and State governments developing metropolitan plans in an attempt to address some of the negative aspects associated with urban growth. Typically, many capital cities engaged in creating metropolitan wide spatial plans to guide development over long periods of up to 20 years or more. Particular focus was given to land release on the Rural-urban fringe, establishing a hierarchy of urban centres, the construction of new public housing
estates and a preference towards building car based infrastructure (such as new highways, etc). Examples include the Sydney County of Cumberland Plan of 1948 (regarded as the first metropolitan plan for Sydney) and the Sydney Region Outline Plan of 1968.
From the early 1970s the Australian Federal Government became directly involved in urban policy with the Whitlam Labour government establishing for the first time a federal Department of Urban and Regional Development. Federal government involvement included taking care of sewage
servicing backlogs in major metropolitan centres, the establishment of growth centres and new towns to foster de-centralisation, funding infrastructure and public housing.
, with a significant body of legislation
and case law guiding planning principles and decisions.
Australia’s federal system of governance, the nation-wide Australian Government, the six states and two territories have their own urban planning law
s and procedures resulting in separate systems of planning and land use
management, including separate administrative department
s that oversee and regulate planning and land use activities. Consequently, there is no single urban planning system for Australia – rather, there are a number of planning systems that operate largely independently of each other along state based lines.
as a Federal Government responsibility. Nevertheless, the Federal Government is increasingly playing a role in the urban planning process in Australia, mainly through the regulation of development on areas that are of national environmental significance, or through actual development activities on federal land. Examples of this are where the Federal Government has actively sought to provide strategic guidance and direction in urban policy, starting with the Whitlam Labour Government in the early 1970s, the Building Better Cities Program of the mid 1990s, and, most recently, with the release of a National Urban Policy in 2011.
The National Urban Policy was released by the Minister for Infrastructure in 2011 and establishes for the first time the Australian Government‘s overarching goals for the nation's cities and how to make them more productive and sustainable.
The principal piece of Commonwealth legislation impacting urban planning decisions is the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999
which establishes a framework for assessing impacts on threatened species
of national significance, world heritage site
s, nuclear actions, and national heritage places, amongst other considerations.
(NSW) is principally controlled under the provisions of the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979 (EP&A Act). The EP&A Act establishes a number of key planning considerations in NSW, including:
In addition to the legislative framework governing land use and urban planning in New South Wales
, the Minister for Planning, through the Department of Planning and Infrastructure, publishes a Metropolitan Plan for Sydney
, along with Regional Strategies for the Far North Coast, Mid North Coast, Lower Hunter, Illawarra, Sydney to Canberra Corridor, and Murray regions. Whilst not provided for explicitly in the EP&A Act, these strategic planning documents provide a basis for more detailed planning at the Local Government Council
, and sub-regional levels (especially in the Sydney Metropolitan Area).
Given that urban planning in NSW is codified through specific legislation, there is a dedicated Land and Environment Court of New South Wales
to deal with urban planning disputes. Typically, these most urban planning cases heard by the Land and Environment Court deal with development assessment matters.
and demographic change is a key consideration for Australian urban planning. Data in the 2006 census in Australia
indicates that over 75% of all Australians live in 17 cities each with a population size of over 100,000. The five largest cities of Sydney
, Melbourne
, Brisbane
, Perth
and Adelaide
contain the majority (60.8%) of urban Australians.
According to projections from the Australian Bureau of Statistics
and the Department of the Treasury (Australia)
it is anticipated that Australia’s population
will continue growing and will reach 35 million by 2050. It is estimated that 72% of this growth will occur in cities.
The Department of the Treasury
produced an Intergenerational Report in 2010 which predicts that there will be 8.1 million Australians over the age of 65 years by 2050. This compares to 2.6 million in 2006. This prediction for an aging population in Australia is attributed to low fertility
rates and increasing life expectancy
.
At the same time it is predicted that household
s will increase from 7.4 million in 2001 to 10.2 million in 2026 while decline of household size is expected from 2.6 in 2001 to 2.3 in 2006. The composition and size of households varies across Australian cities. A significant proportion of population growth since 2000 has been attributed to overseas immigration to Australia
. In 2007–08 the Australian Bureau of Statistics data records that migration contributed 60% of population growth. Long term migration to Australia has meant that 24% of the population was born overseas. The majority of these migrants live in the major cities.
As well as overseas migration some cities are also experiencing internal movement. In 2007–08 New South Wales
experienced a net loss of 19,831 whereas Queensland
had a net gain of 18,388.
The structure of households within urban cities in Australia has also changed. There is an increasing trend towards couple only, lone parent and single person households with only a marginal increase in parents with children. Despite the trend towards smaller households Australian cities still showed growth in couples with children that was above the overall Australian average. Consequently, cities are still the place where the next generation Australian will be raised.
These demographic changes, in particular the population ageing
and increase in smaller households, is leading to a greater demand in urban planning for housing and also different types of housing overall. Some metropolitan areas are experiencing housing shortages, particularly with regards to the provision of affordable accommodation.It is also placing pressure on housing affordability where there is only a single income.
, urban development, rainfall patterns and extreme weather events (such as droughts, heat waves, severe storms, bushfires, extensive flooding) are highlighting the need for increasing focus on sustainability in Australian cities.
Transport
emissions have been reported as one of strongest areas of emissions growth in Australia, which is a consequence of the distance separating many land uses, and of the underlying low density form of many Australian metropolitan areas. Private car use has continued to increase which is leading to greater levels of city congestion and urban air quality challenges. The cost of congestion to the Australia economy was estimated at $9.4 billion in 2005 with a prediction of a rise in cost to $20 billion by 2020 unless the issue is addressed.
Research is indicating too that whilst the total levels of key pollutants in cities has fallen in the last ten years as a result of improved fuel and emissions standards, particulate air pollution and ozone
levels remain above the national air quality standard.
Rates of recycling
nationally have increased, however waste generation has also increased over the period 2002–03 to 2006–07 by 31%. This exceeds the population increase of 5.6% over the same period. As a result, this has placed pressure on governments to adequate plan for landfill
and associated waste management facilities in metropolitan areas.
Data on rainfall patterns in eastern and southwest Australia, where the major cities are located, indicates a decline in the annual rate of rainfall per decade of up to 50 mm since 1950. This is providing challenges in terms of both availability and the quality of water supplies, particularly when combined with population growth.
At the planning level basic aspects of sustainable housing design such as raising density, mixed use, promoting mixed use development, and encouraging transit oriented development to increase trips made by public transport
have been progressively adopted as policy responses in Australian cities.
Sustainable building codes such as the Victoria’s Green Star (Australia)
rating and New South Wales’ BASIX
sustainability assessment tool are being applied to new developments to improve energy and water conservation at the individual building scale.
Further improvements in waste
, water, energy
and onsite food production are being progressively seen as a necessary and significant part of planning for urban sustainability
in Australian cities.
that the water systems support.
Within the frame-work planners consider:
WSUD incorporates planning and design as it relates to the building and landscape architecture
on site and also in the context of wider local and regional initiatives.
and consolidation is changing the character of Australian cities. Planning strategies have focused on containing the outward physical sprawl of cities whilst at the same time emphasis has been placed on redeveloping the inner city and older employment zones as new residential spaces.
A new inner urban city middle class
has emerged which has driven the renovation
and restoration of the housing stock formally owned by older inner city working class
communities. The transformation of these areas has predominantly seen the end of these areas being viewed as places of social disadvantage.
In parallel to the renovation of the housing stock there has also been a revitalization of disused industrial and commercial spaces such as warehouses and docklands and these have been transformed into new residential, commercial and recreational spaces often with high density development. Examples include the Docklands development in Melbourne, Green Square, Victoria Park and Barrangaroo in Sydney and South Bank in Brisbane.
High density living in Australian cities is limited to the inner urban cores of major metropolitan areas, and is substantially less dense than comparable cities in Asia and Europe. Typically most urban housing development focused on a single one level house (although this is changing) on a separate block of land. There has been a small amount of low rise apartment
s in inner city areas since the 1930s but this started to change since the introduction of Strata Title
legislation in the 1960s. The Strata Title
legislation enabled individuals to own individual apartments in a multi-apartment block on a single piece of land. Before this apartment blocks were predominantly owned as a single property by landlord
s.
The introduction of Strata Titles also enabled easier financing arrangements for individuals wishing to purchase a single apartment. Strata titles cover both apartments as well as attached dwellings such as town houses where these have been developed on a single title of land.
Once introduced Strata Titling facilitated the redevelopment, particularly in valuable areas or often close to transport infrastructure, of older housing on larger pieces of land which were replaced with apartment blocks.
Going forward this style of higher density housing is expected to play a large part in meeting housing needs for the changing demographics
of an aging population and smaller households in Australian cities. For example, the Sydney Metropolitan Plan 2036 has a growth target of 70% of all new housing to be in the existing urban footprint, with 80% of all housing to be within a 20 minute commute of a major centre. To facilitate this, the Minister for Planning in NSW released an Urban Renewal Planning Policy to specifically deliver urban renewal in key sites in the Sydney Metropolitan area.
is an important factor in the decision making
process for urban planning
in Australia because of the highly urbanised population prone to extreme weather
patterns. Australia’s urban areas are susceptible to changes in the climate
because of the physical construction of the built environment, infrastructure, and its ecological correlation with the urban ecosystem
. Over 80% of the Australian population lives in the coastal area of Australia and many on the fringe of bush land and rivers making them vulnerable to the effects of climate change. These effects include sea level rise, increased storm surges resulting in coastal erosion
, strong winds, intense rainfall causing flash flooding and bushfires due to increased temperatures. The Australian Federal Government is in the process of developing climate adaptation and mitigation strategies along with risk assessment analysis initiatives to urban planning.
Historically urban planning has been the role of the state, regional and local governments but since December 2009 the Australian Federal Government has re-engaged in a strategic decision making process to prepare for climate change
. The Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency (DCCEE) has developed adaption programs and risk assessments. A risk assessment has been calculated for possible effects on urban areas due to climate change and replacement values for transport, industrial, residential and commercial infrastructure runs into billions of dollars. Therefore avoidance of future risk is the most cost effective approach to urban planning.
The options for coastal and riverside management to deal with sea level rise and storm surges fall into three categories; “retreat”, “accommodate” and “protect”. “Retreat” entails relocating coastal and riverside infrastructure that are high risk of damage from extreme weather patterns, as well as designing buildings and infrastructures in new locations away from potential risk areas. “Accommodate” means adapting the existing built environments to effectively cope with the changing conditions such as Island raising through adding sand to beaches and raising infrastructure and buildings near the coast and riverside. “Protect” involves building sea walls and levees to prevent damage from storm surges and sea level rise.
There are a number of simple but effective adaptation options possible at a local scale to deal with intense rainfall and temperature rises. These include reducing impervious surfaces to allow for water infiltration, tree planting in urban areas to reduce the “heat island effect” and constructing transport facilities away from flood areas. Designing buildings with natural ventilation and building insulation
will also help with increasing temperatures. While the only possible solution to bushfires might be to increase fire breaks between the houses and bush land.
is a key aspect in the initiation of these regulations especially the impact it had on proposed urban development in the city of Sydney.
In the early twentieth century there was no historic sense of preservation with regard to the built environment and people were happy to see the old replaced by the new. Then in the 1970’s came the Green Bans movement imposed by builders labourers across Australia, being particularly prominent in Sydney. The Green Ban was created to defend the demolition of older style buildings that were to make way for new developments of skyscrapers, shopping precincts and luxury apartments. It was initiated by the builders labourers that were hired to construct these new buildings and was the first of its kind around the world. The key element of the movement came from the New South Wales Builders Labourers Federation (NSWBLF) which consisted of over 100 union members that belonged to the Communist Party of Australia
. The most famous union leaders of the NSWBLF were Bob Pringle, Joe Owens and Jack Mundey
. Many critics of the union disputed that they were denying workers employment but the union responded that they wanted to build but in a way that enhanced the built environment, such as schools and houses for the everyday person not buildings based on developers' needs. Among the 40 green bans imposed in NSW, The Rocks
in Sydney was the most significant areas saved. The green ban prevented the demolition of some of the oldest buildings in Australia and beautiful foreshore parks which were going to be replaced by concrete, glass office blocks.
States and territories of Australia have since implemented heritage acts and have heritage frameworks in place to protect buildings and places of cultural significance. On a national scale in 1999 the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act was introduced which outlines a National Heritage List (NHL). The NHL is in place to protect “exceptional natural and cultural places that contribute to Australia's national identity”. Since then measurements of heritage have evolved and in 2011, there are 113 places listed of iconic heritage value to the whole of Australia, which include the Sydney Opera House
, Melbourne Cricket Ground
and Anzac Parade in Canberra
.
Urban planning in Australia in the 21st century now has very strict guidelines to follow and heritage is of fundamental significance in the decision making process before any construction takes place. As developers now know there will always be people watching and ready to protect Australia’s cultural history.
Previously, urban planning in Australia quite often did not involve the community and projects went ahead to construct residential buildings that were crammed into small areas and did not provide space for recreation and socialising. Recently this approach has changed and planners have realised the importance of creating an urban environment that encourages social behavior among its residents. These new designs incorporate active living and recreational areas that provide for social connectivity and wellbeing. This new approach has come through feedback from the community showing the positive effects of their involvement.
In 2008, the Australian federal government headed by former Prime Minister Kevin Rudd
inaugurated the Department of Infrastructure and Transport to work with the newly established Major Cities Unit (MCU)in an effort to involve the community to develop urban environments into more productive and sustainable places. From then on the MCU has been researching ways to develop policies that improve urban planning to make cities more socially inclusive and encouraging the community to actively participate in the decision making process. In May 2011, national urban new policies were released by the Minister for Infrastructure and Transport, Anthony Albanese which promised to: "enhance the livability of cities by promoting better urban design, planning and affordable access to recreational, cultural and community facilities."
There is still a need to develop more effective participation from the community. Often the participants do not represent the views of the whole community and disadvantaged groups such as the poor and minorities do not get a fair say in the urban planning process.
Australia’s urban transport system could become under increasing demand as the population grows and Australia moves to a more environmentally friendly
urban system. Some of Australia’s urban problems such as road congestion and pollution could be solved by the improvement of public transport, as it is a crucial aspect in creating a functional, sustainable city. The urban structure of Australian cities consists of dispersed suburbs and dense central building districts which creates immense planning challenges for decision makers. Urban planners now realise the need to integrate active and sustainable public transport with destinations accessible to alternative modes of transport such as cycling and walking to encourage people to reduce the stress of cars on the roads.
Road transport contributes to 88% of all transport emissions and the cities of Australia are congested not only by automobiles but the parking lots they use. In March 2006, 75% of adults in Australian cities travelled to work or study by private automobile in comparison to 19% that used public transport and 5% that walked or cycled. Reducing private automobile dependence will improve the pollution problem and free up land to build more needed infrastructure such as schools, houses and hospitals. To encourage Australians to use public transport research suggests it should be more efficient (timely, reliable, and accessible) and affordable.
The Australian Transport Council has found that the current networks of buses and trains in Australian cities need to be integrated with effective land use
. At the moment buses and trains run along the same routes competing with each other. Ideally trains are used to travel long distances, with a high passenger capacity and avoid the traffic signals. Buses should be in place as an intermediary for fast inner city train networks and for passengers to access surrounding suburbs not suitable for trains. Land use integration would mean that urban planners design infrastructure around public transport to enable the public to have access to transport within close walking distance from their home or work. Urban planners and policy makers are realizing the need to remove car parks, build upon current transport infrastructure to create a more efficient system that facilitates urban regeneration.
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
is one of the most highly urbanised societies in the world. Continued population growth in Australian cities is placing increasing pressure on infrastructure, such as public transport and roadways, energy, air and water systems within the urban environment.
Urban planning
Urban planning
Urban planning incorporates areas such as economics, design, ecology, sociology, geography, law, political science, and statistics to guide and ensure the orderly development of settlements and communities....
is undertaken at all levels of Government in Australia. However, the Federal Government is playing an increasing part in setting policy as part of an overall response to developing climate adaptation and mitigation strategies. The local government has also been engaging with the community to make decisions on urban planning designs that help to promote social cohesion. Over the past few decades Australian's have developed a respect for urban heritage places and community groups have fought hard to stop developers from destroying them.
History
Urban planning in Australia has evolved since early British colonial settlement, and has been heavily influenced by contemporary planning movements in BritainUnited Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
, the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
of America and western Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
. However, over the past century, distinctly Australian responses and solutions to Australian urban issues have developed.
The British Colonial Period (1788–1901)
Governor
A governor is a governing official, usually the executive of a non-sovereign level of government, ranking under the head of state...
s undertaking surveying for land grant
Land grant
A land grant is a gift of real estate – land or its privileges – made by a government or other authority as a reward for services to an individual, especially in return for military service...
s and subdivisions, and making executive decisions on the location and construction of road
Road
A road is a thoroughfare, route, or way on land between two places, which typically has been paved or otherwise improved to allow travel by some conveyance, including a horse, cart, or motor vehicle. Roads consist of one, or sometimes two, roadways each with one or more lanes and also any...
s, rail transport
Rail transport
Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods by way of wheeled vehicles running on rail tracks. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles merely run on a prepared surface, rail vehicles are also directionally guided by the tracks they run on...
, water supply
Water supply
Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities, commercial organisations, community endeavours or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes...
and other basic infrastructure to support early penal and military settlements. Primacy was given to the functional and practical needs of Colonial administration, as opposed to more lofty civic or aesthetic ideals.Freestone 2007 p.68
Despite these humble, utilitarian beginnings, there were places where clear planning and design for settlements occurred. One of the earliest forms of a planned settlement in Australia involved the work of Colonel William Light, a Colonial Surveyor and the Surveyor-General for the colony of South Australia
South Australia
South Australia is a state of Australia in the southern central part of the country. It covers some of the most arid parts of the continent; with a total land area of , it is the fourth largest of Australia's six states and two territories.South Australia shares borders with all of the mainland...
, in planning and designing the original city centre grid for Adelaide in 1837. While Light’s plan was not entirely realised, it is widely regarded as a fine achievement of colonial era civic design.
Rapid colonial expansion in the 19th century, matched by economic growth
Economic growth
In economics, economic growth is defined as the increasing capacity of the economy to satisfy the wants of goods and services of the members of society. Economic growth is enabled by increases in productivity, which lowers the inputs for a given amount of output. Lowered costs increase demand...
, resulted in Australia becoming one of the most highly urbanised nations in the world. For example, by 1861, 40% of Sydney’s residents lived in suburbs. This trend towards urbanisation was established early and continued into the 20th century.
Early 20th century
Australia’s rapid urbanisation meant urban planning became an increasingly important issue.This concern with civic improvement was expressed in many ways, with citizen groups forming in Australian cities to advocate healthier, more beautiful cities. In Sydney
Sydney
Sydney is the most populous city in Australia and the state capital of New South Wales. Sydney is located on Australia's south-east coast of the Tasman Sea. As of June 2010, the greater metropolitan area had an approximate population of 4.6 million people...
, this desire to improve planning found its expression through a Royal Commission
Royal Commission
In Commonwealth realms and other monarchies a Royal Commission is a major ad-hoc formal public inquiry into a defined issue. They have been held in various countries such as the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and Saudi Arabia...
into the Improvement of Sydney
Sydney
Sydney is the most populous city in Australia and the state capital of New South Wales. Sydney is located on Australia's south-east coast of the Tasman Sea. As of June 2010, the greater metropolitan area had an approximate population of 4.6 million people...
and its Suburb
Suburb
The word suburb mostly refers to a residential area, either existing as part of a city or as a separate residential community within commuting distance of a city . Some suburbs have a degree of administrative autonomy, and most have lower population density than inner city neighborhoods...
s, which commenced in 1908, focusing on transport
Transport
Transport or transportation is the movement of people, cattle, animals and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline, and space. The field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles, and operations...
ation, slum
Slum
A slum, as defined by United Nations agency UN-HABITAT, is a run-down area of a city characterized by substandard housing and squalor and lacking in tenure security. According to the United Nations, the percentage of urban dwellers living in slums decreased from 47 percent to 37 percent in the...
clearance, the future growth of Sydney
Sydney
Sydney is the most populous city in Australia and the state capital of New South Wales. Sydney is located on Australia's south-east coast of the Tasman Sea. As of June 2010, the greater metropolitan area had an approximate population of 4.6 million people...
, and aesthetics. The Garden City movement, founded by Ebenezer Howard
Ebenezer Howard
Sir Ebenezer Howard is known for his publication Garden Cities of To-morrow , the description of a utopian city in which people live harmoniously together with nature. The publication resulted in the founding of the garden city movement, that realized several Garden Cities in Great Britain at the...
in the UK, was also influential and was adopted as a design strategy in several areas of Australian cities (such as in Daceyville
Daceyville, New South Wales
Daceyville is a suburb in south-eastern Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. Daceyville is located 7 km southeast of the Sydney central business district and is part of the City of Botany Bay....
in south eastern Sydney).
One of the earliest international contributions made by Australia to urban planning theory and practice resulted from the international competition held to design Australia’s new federal capital, Canberra
Canberra
Canberra is the capital city of Australia. With a population of over 345,000, it is Australia's largest inland city and the eighth-largest city overall. The city is located at the northern end of the Australian Capital Territory , south-west of Sydney, and north-east of Melbourne...
, which was held between 1911 and 1912. The winning design was submitted by American architects Walter Burley Griffin
Walter Burley Griffin
Walter Burley Griffin was an American architect and landscape architect, who is best known for his role in designing Canberra, Australia's capital city...
and Marion Mahoney, with the design reflecting state of the art planning concepts from the time. Whilst Canberra
Canberra
Canberra is the capital city of Australia. With a population of over 345,000, it is Australia's largest inland city and the eighth-largest city overall. The city is located at the northern end of the Australian Capital Territory , south-west of Sydney, and north-east of Melbourne...
was actually constructed some time after the competition, it still represented an early international example of a planned city.
The Post World War II period (1945+)
Australian cities and urban centres, particularly capital cities, experienced significant growth after World War II, which was largely driven by a combination of rapid economic expansion, high birth rates and unparalleled levels of immigrationImmigration
Immigration is the act of foreigners passing or coming into a country for the purpose of permanent residence...
, particularly from western Europe and, from the 1970s, south east Asia. Furthermore, increasing ownership of the motor car, combined with cheap fuel, resulted in an explosion in the urban form of many Australian urban centres. Many cities were rapidly transformed from modest, medium density centres, supported by public transport
Public transport
Public transport is a shared passenger transportation service which is available for use by the general public, as distinct from modes such as taxicab, car pooling or hired buses which are not shared by strangers without private arrangement.Public transport modes include buses, trolleybuses, trams...
, to a suburban, car dominated city with large, residential dormitory suburbs. As a consequence, population
Population
A population is all the organisms that both belong to the same group or species and live in the same geographical area. The area that is used to define a sexual population is such that inter-breeding is possible between any pair within the area and more probable than cross-breeding with individuals...
and land use
Land use
Land use is the human use of land. Land use involves the management and modification of natural environment or wilderness into built environment such as fields, pastures, and settlements. It has also been defined as "the arrangements, activities and inputs people undertake in a certain land cover...
become increasingly dispersed. For example, in 1840 40% of Sydney’s residents lived in suburbs, while by the 1960s this figure had risen to over 70%.
Metropolitan planning
Economic growth
In economics, economic growth is defined as the increasing capacity of the economy to satisfy the wants of goods and services of the members of society. Economic growth is enabled by increases in productivity, which lowers the inputs for a given amount of output. Lowered costs increase demand...
resulted in Federal and State governments developing metropolitan plans in an attempt to address some of the negative aspects associated with urban growth. Typically, many capital cities engaged in creating metropolitan wide spatial plans to guide development over long periods of up to 20 years or more. Particular focus was given to land release on the Rural-urban fringe, establishing a hierarchy of urban centres, the construction of new public housing
Public housing
Public housing is a form of housing tenure in which the property is owned by a government authority, which may be central or local. Social housing is an umbrella term referring to rental housing which may be owned and managed by the state, by non-profit organizations, or by a combination of the...
estates and a preference towards building car based infrastructure (such as new highways, etc). Examples include the Sydney County of Cumberland Plan of 1948 (regarded as the first metropolitan plan for Sydney) and the Sydney Region Outline Plan of 1968.
From the early 1970s the Australian Federal Government became directly involved in urban policy with the Whitlam Labour government establishing for the first time a federal Department of Urban and Regional Development. Federal government involvement included taking care of sewage
Sewage
Sewage is water-carried waste, in solution or suspension, that is intended to be removed from a community. Also known as wastewater, it is more than 99% water and is characterized by volume or rate of flow, physical condition, chemical constituents and the bacteriological organisms that it contains...
servicing backlogs in major metropolitan centres, the establishment of growth centres and new towns to foster de-centralisation, funding infrastructure and public housing.
Australian Planning Frameworks
Urban planning in Australia is a distinct, defined profession, represented by a peak industry group called the Planning Institute of Australia. Similarly, urban planning activities in Australia are codified in lawLaw
Law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institutions to govern behavior, wherever possible. It shapes politics, economics and society in numerous ways and serves as a social mediator of relations between people. Contract law regulates everything from buying a bus...
, with a significant body of legislation
Legislation
Legislation is law which has been promulgated by a legislature or other governing body, or the process of making it...
and case law guiding planning principles and decisions.
Australia’s federal system of governance, the nation-wide Australian Government, the six states and two territories have their own urban planning law
Law
Law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institutions to govern behavior, wherever possible. It shapes politics, economics and society in numerous ways and serves as a social mediator of relations between people. Contract law regulates everything from buying a bus...
s and procedures resulting in separate systems of planning and land use
Land use
Land use is the human use of land. Land use involves the management and modification of natural environment or wilderness into built environment such as fields, pastures, and settlements. It has also been defined as "the arrangements, activities and inputs people undertake in a certain land cover...
management, including separate administrative department
Department
A department is a part of a larger organization with a specific responsibility. For the division of organizations into departments, see departmentalization.In particular:...
s that oversee and regulate planning and land use activities. Consequently, there is no single urban planning system for Australia – rather, there are a number of planning systems that operate largely independently of each other along state based lines.
Australian Federal Government
Urban planning is not specifically referred to in the Constitution of AustraliaConstitution of Australia
The Constitution of Australia is the supreme law under which the Australian Commonwealth Government operates. It consists of several documents. The most important is the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia...
as a Federal Government responsibility. Nevertheless, the Federal Government is increasingly playing a role in the urban planning process in Australia, mainly through the regulation of development on areas that are of national environmental significance, or through actual development activities on federal land. Examples of this are where the Federal Government has actively sought to provide strategic guidance and direction in urban policy, starting with the Whitlam Labour Government in the early 1970s, the Building Better Cities Program of the mid 1990s, and, most recently, with the release of a National Urban Policy in 2011.
The National Urban Policy was released by the Minister for Infrastructure in 2011 and establishes for the first time the Australian Government‘s overarching goals for the nation's cities and how to make them more productive and sustainable.
The principal piece of Commonwealth legislation impacting urban planning decisions is the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999
Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999
The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is an Act of the Parliament of Australia that provides a framework for protection of the Australian environment, including its biodiversity and its natural and culturally significant places...
which establishes a framework for assessing impacts on threatened species
Threatened species
Threatened species are any speciesg animals, plants, fungi, etc.) which are vulnerable to endangerment in the near future.The World Conservation Union is the foremost authority on threatened species, and treats threatened species not as a single category, but as a group of three categories,...
of national significance, world heritage site
World Heritage Site
A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a place that is listed by the UNESCO as of special cultural or physical significance...
s, nuclear actions, and national heritage places, amongst other considerations.
New South Wales
Land use planning in New South WalesNew South Wales
New South Wales is a state of :Australia, located in the east of the country. It is bordered by Queensland, Victoria and South Australia to the north, south and west respectively. To the east, the state is bordered by the Tasman Sea, which forms part of the Pacific Ocean. New South Wales...
(NSW) is principally controlled under the provisions of the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979 (EP&A Act). The EP&A Act establishes a number of key planning considerations in NSW, including:
- The role of the Minister for Planning in NSW, as well as the administrative functions of the New South Wales Department of PlanningNew South Wales Department of PlanningThe New South Wales Department of Planning and Infrastructure, a department of the New South Wales Government, is responsibile for the long-term planning for the regions of New South Wales and driving well-located housing and employment land...
; - Strategic plan making functions, either through a State Environmental Planning Policy, Local Environmental Plan or Development Control Plan; and
- Environmental assessment functions
In addition to the legislative framework governing land use and urban planning in New South Wales
New South Wales
New South Wales is a state of :Australia, located in the east of the country. It is bordered by Queensland, Victoria and South Australia to the north, south and west respectively. To the east, the state is bordered by the Tasman Sea, which forms part of the Pacific Ocean. New South Wales...
, the Minister for Planning, through the Department of Planning and Infrastructure, publishes a Metropolitan Plan for Sydney
Sydney
Sydney is the most populous city in Australia and the state capital of New South Wales. Sydney is located on Australia's south-east coast of the Tasman Sea. As of June 2010, the greater metropolitan area had an approximate population of 4.6 million people...
, along with Regional Strategies for the Far North Coast, Mid North Coast, Lower Hunter, Illawarra, Sydney to Canberra Corridor, and Murray regions. Whilst not provided for explicitly in the EP&A Act, these strategic planning documents provide a basis for more detailed planning at the Local Government Council
Council
-In politics:* Borough council, a form of local government* City council, a form of local government* Community council, the most local official representative bodies in Scotland and Wales...
, and sub-regional levels (especially in the Sydney Metropolitan Area).
Given that urban planning in NSW is codified through specific legislation, there is a dedicated Land and Environment Court of New South Wales
Land and Environment Court of New South Wales
The Land and Environment Court of New South Wales is a Court established by legislation giving it exclusive jurisdiction to determine environmental, development, building and planning disputes...
to deal with urban planning disputes. Typically, these most urban planning cases heard by the Land and Environment Court deal with development assessment matters.
Population growth and demographic change
Population growthPopulation growth
Population growth is the change in a population over time, and can be quantified as the change in the number of individuals of any species in a population using "per unit time" for measurement....
and demographic change is a key consideration for Australian urban planning. Data in the 2006 census in Australia
Census in Australia
The Australian census is administered once every five years by the Australian Bureau of Statistics. The most recent census was conducted on 9 August 2011; the next will be conducted in 2016. Prior to the introduction of regular censuses in 1961, they had also been run in 1901, 1911, 1921, 1933,...
indicates that over 75% of all Australians live in 17 cities each with a population size of over 100,000. The five largest cities of Sydney
Sydney
Sydney is the most populous city in Australia and the state capital of New South Wales. Sydney is located on Australia's south-east coast of the Tasman Sea. As of June 2010, the greater metropolitan area had an approximate population of 4.6 million people...
, Melbourne
Melbourne
Melbourne is the capital and most populous city in the state of Victoria, and the second most populous city in Australia. The Melbourne City Centre is the hub of the greater metropolitan area and the Census statistical division—of which "Melbourne" is the common name. As of June 2009, the greater...
, Brisbane
Brisbane
Brisbane is the capital and most populous city in the Australian state of Queensland and the third most populous city in Australia. Brisbane's metropolitan area has a population of over 2 million, and the South East Queensland urban conurbation, centred around Brisbane, encompasses a population of...
, Perth
Perth, Western Australia
Perth is the capital and largest city of the Australian state of Western Australia and the fourth most populous city in Australia. The Perth metropolitan area has an estimated population of almost 1,700,000....
and Adelaide
Adelaide
Adelaide is the capital city of South Australia and the fifth-largest city in Australia. Adelaide has an estimated population of more than 1.2 million...
contain the majority (60.8%) of urban Australians.
According to projections from the Australian Bureau of Statistics
Australian Bureau of Statistics
The Australian Bureau of Statistics is Australia's national statistical agency. It was created as the Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics on 8 December 1905, when the Census and Statistics Act 1905 was given Royal assent. It had its beginnings in section 51 of the Constitution of Australia...
and the Department of the Treasury (Australia)
Department of the Treasury (Australia)
The Department of the Treasury is an Australian Government department. Its role is to focus and develop economic policy.-History:The Commonwealth Treasury was established in Melbourne in January 1901....
it is anticipated that Australia’s population
Population
A population is all the organisms that both belong to the same group or species and live in the same geographical area. The area that is used to define a sexual population is such that inter-breeding is possible between any pair within the area and more probable than cross-breeding with individuals...
will continue growing and will reach 35 million by 2050. It is estimated that 72% of this growth will occur in cities.
The Department of the Treasury
Department of the Treasury (Australia)
The Department of the Treasury is an Australian Government department. Its role is to focus and develop economic policy.-History:The Commonwealth Treasury was established in Melbourne in January 1901....
produced an Intergenerational Report in 2010 which predicts that there will be 8.1 million Australians over the age of 65 years by 2050. This compares to 2.6 million in 2006. This prediction for an aging population in Australia is attributed to low fertility
Fertility
Fertility is the natural capability of producing offsprings. As a measure, "fertility rate" is the number of children born per couple, person or population. Fertility differs from fecundity, which is defined as the potential for reproduction...
rates and increasing life expectancy
Life expectancy
Life expectancy is the expected number of years of life remaining at a given age. It is denoted by ex, which means the average number of subsequent years of life for someone now aged x, according to a particular mortality experience...
.
At the same time it is predicted that household
Household
The household is "the basic residential unit in which economic production, consumption, inheritance, child rearing, and shelter are organized and carried out"; [the household] "may or may not be synonymous with family"....
s will increase from 7.4 million in 2001 to 10.2 million in 2026 while decline of household size is expected from 2.6 in 2001 to 2.3 in 2006. The composition and size of households varies across Australian cities. A significant proportion of population growth since 2000 has been attributed to overseas immigration to Australia
Immigration to Australia
Immigration to Australia is estimated to have begun around 51,000 years ago when the ancestors of Australian Aborigines arrived on the continent via the islands of the Malay Archipelago and New Guinea. Europeans first landed in the 17th and 18th Centuries, but colonisation only started in 1788. The...
. In 2007–08 the Australian Bureau of Statistics data records that migration contributed 60% of population growth. Long term migration to Australia has meant that 24% of the population was born overseas. The majority of these migrants live in the major cities.
As well as overseas migration some cities are also experiencing internal movement. In 2007–08 New South Wales
New South Wales
New South Wales is a state of :Australia, located in the east of the country. It is bordered by Queensland, Victoria and South Australia to the north, south and west respectively. To the east, the state is bordered by the Tasman Sea, which forms part of the Pacific Ocean. New South Wales...
experienced a net loss of 19,831 whereas Queensland
Queensland
Queensland is a state of Australia, occupying the north-eastern section of the mainland continent. It is bordered by the Northern Territory, South Australia and New South Wales to the west, south-west and south respectively. To the east, Queensland is bordered by the Coral Sea and Pacific Ocean...
had a net gain of 18,388.
The structure of households within urban cities in Australia has also changed. There is an increasing trend towards couple only, lone parent and single person households with only a marginal increase in parents with children. Despite the trend towards smaller households Australian cities still showed growth in couples with children that was above the overall Australian average. Consequently, cities are still the place where the next generation Australian will be raised.
These demographic changes, in particular the population ageing
Population ageing
Population ageing or population aging occurs when the median age of a country or region rises. This happens because of rising life expectancy or declining birth rates. Excepting 18 countries termed 'demographic outliers' by the UN) this process is taking place in every country and region across...
and increase in smaller households, is leading to a greater demand in urban planning for housing and also different types of housing overall. Some metropolitan areas are experiencing housing shortages, particularly with regards to the provision of affordable accommodation.It is also placing pressure on housing affordability where there is only a single income.
Sustainability
Trends in population growth, transport emissions, energy usage, waste managementWaste management
Waste management is the collection, transport, processing or disposal,managing and monitoring of waste materials. The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity, and the process is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, the environment or aesthetics...
, urban development, rainfall patterns and extreme weather events (such as droughts, heat waves, severe storms, bushfires, extensive flooding) are highlighting the need for increasing focus on sustainability in Australian cities.
Transport
Transport or transportation is the movement of people, cattle, animals and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline, and space. The field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles, and operations...
emissions have been reported as one of strongest areas of emissions growth in Australia, which is a consequence of the distance separating many land uses, and of the underlying low density form of many Australian metropolitan areas. Private car use has continued to increase which is leading to greater levels of city congestion and urban air quality challenges. The cost of congestion to the Australia economy was estimated at $9.4 billion in 2005 with a prediction of a rise in cost to $20 billion by 2020 unless the issue is addressed.
Research is indicating too that whilst the total levels of key pollutants in cities has fallen in the last ten years as a result of improved fuel and emissions standards, particulate air pollution and ozone
Ozone
Ozone , or trioxygen, is a triatomic molecule, consisting of three oxygen atoms. It is an allotrope of oxygen that is much less stable than the diatomic allotrope...
levels remain above the national air quality standard.
Rates of recycling
Recycling
Recycling is processing used materials into new products to prevent waste of potentially useful materials, reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, reduce energy usage, reduce air pollution and water pollution by reducing the need for "conventional" waste disposal, and lower greenhouse...
nationally have increased, however waste generation has also increased over the period 2002–03 to 2006–07 by 31%. This exceeds the population increase of 5.6% over the same period. As a result, this has placed pressure on governments to adequate plan for landfill
Landfill
A landfill site , is a site for the disposal of waste materials by burial and is the oldest form of waste treatment...
and associated waste management facilities in metropolitan areas.
Data on rainfall patterns in eastern and southwest Australia, where the major cities are located, indicates a decline in the annual rate of rainfall per decade of up to 50 mm since 1950. This is providing challenges in terms of both availability and the quality of water supplies, particularly when combined with population growth.
At the planning level basic aspects of sustainable housing design such as raising density, mixed use, promoting mixed use development, and encouraging transit oriented development to increase trips made by public transport
Public transport
Public transport is a shared passenger transportation service which is available for use by the general public, as distinct from modes such as taxicab, car pooling or hired buses which are not shared by strangers without private arrangement.Public transport modes include buses, trolleybuses, trams...
have been progressively adopted as policy responses in Australian cities.
Sustainable building codes such as the Victoria’s Green Star (Australia)
Green Star (Australia)
Green Star is a voluntary environmental rating system for buildings in Australia. It was launched in 2003 by the Green Building Council of Australia....
rating and New South Wales’ BASIX
BASIX
BASIX or Building Sustainability Index is a scheme introduced by the government of New South Wales, Australia in 2004 to regulate the energy efficiency of residential buildings. It offers an online assessment tool for rating the expected performance of any residential development in terms of water...
sustainability assessment tool are being applied to new developments to improve energy and water conservation at the individual building scale.
Further improvements in waste
Waste
Waste is unwanted or useless materials. In biology, waste is any of the many unwanted substances or toxins that are expelled from living organisms, metabolic waste; such as urea, sweat or feces. Litter is waste which has been disposed of improperly...
, water, energy
Energy
In physics, energy is an indirectly observed quantity. It is often understood as the ability a physical system has to do work on other physical systems...
and onsite food production are being progressively seen as a necessary and significant part of planning for urban sustainability
Sustainability
Sustainability is the capacity to endure. For humans, sustainability is the long-term maintenance of well being, which has environmental, economic, and social dimensions, and encompasses the concept of union, an interdependent relationship and mutual responsible position with all living and non...
in Australian cities.
Water sensitive urban design
Water sensitive urban design (WSUD) has evolved to become a framework for integrating the management of urban water within the practice of sustainable urban design in Australia. Water sensitive design aims to ensure that the management of urban water occurs with sensitivity towards natural water systems and the broader ecosystemEcosystem
An ecosystem is a biological environment consisting of all the organisms living in a particular area, as well as all the nonliving , physical components of the environment with which the organisms interact, such as air, soil, water and sunlight....
that the water systems support.
Within the frame-work planners consider:
- protecting natural systems and water qualityWater qualityWater quality is the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water. It is a measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements of one or more biotic species and or to any human need or purpose. It is most frequently used by reference to a set of standards against which...
through filtration and retention and removal of pollutants close to their source; - integration of the potable drinking water covering both the piped system from catchments outside the urban area as well as water itself treated to drinking water standard;
- sewerage which encompasses the pipe system for handling the collection and transport of wastewaterWastewaterWastewater is any water that has been adversely affected in quality by anthropogenic influence. It comprises liquid waste discharged by domestic residences, commercial properties, industry, and/or agriculture and can encompass a wide range of potential contaminants and concentrations...
to treatment plants ; and - Integrated storm water drainage and treatment/re-use as part of the urban landscape.
WSUD incorporates planning and design as it relates to the building and landscape architecture
Landscape architecture
Landscape architecture is the design of outdoor and public spaces to achieve environmental, socio-behavioral, or aesthetic outcomes. It involves the systematic investigation of existing social, ecological, and geological conditions and processes in the landscape, and the design of interventions...
on site and also in the context of wider local and regional initiatives.
Urban renewal and consolidation
Urban renewalUrban renewal
Urban renewal is a program of land redevelopment in areas of moderate to high density urban land use. Renewal has had both successes and failures. Its modern incarnation began in the late 19th century in developed nations and experienced an intense phase in the late 1940s – under the rubric of...
and consolidation is changing the character of Australian cities. Planning strategies have focused on containing the outward physical sprawl of cities whilst at the same time emphasis has been placed on redeveloping the inner city and older employment zones as new residential spaces.
A new inner urban city middle class
Middle class
The middle class is any class of people in the middle of a societal hierarchy. In Weberian socio-economic terms, the middle class is the broad group of people in contemporary society who fall socio-economically between the working class and upper class....
has emerged which has driven the renovation
Renovation
Renovation is the process of improving a structure. Two prominent types of renovations are commercial and residential.-Process:The process of a renovation, however complex, can usually be broken down into several processes...
and restoration of the housing stock formally owned by older inner city working class
Working class
Working class is a term used in the social sciences and in ordinary conversation to describe those employed in lower tier jobs , often extending to those in unemployment or otherwise possessing below-average incomes...
communities. The transformation of these areas has predominantly seen the end of these areas being viewed as places of social disadvantage.
High density living in Australian cities is limited to the inner urban cores of major metropolitan areas, and is substantially less dense than comparable cities in Asia and Europe. Typically most urban housing development focused on a single one level house (although this is changing) on a separate block of land. There has been a small amount of low rise apartment
Apartment
An apartment or flat is a self-contained housing unit that occupies only part of a building...
s in inner city areas since the 1930s but this started to change since the introduction of Strata Title
Strata title
Strata title is a form of ownership devised for multi-level apartment blocks and horizontal subdivisions with shared areas. The 'strata' part of the term refers to apartments being on different levels, or "strata"....
legislation in the 1960s. The Strata Title
Strata title
Strata title is a form of ownership devised for multi-level apartment blocks and horizontal subdivisions with shared areas. The 'strata' part of the term refers to apartments being on different levels, or "strata"....
legislation enabled individuals to own individual apartments in a multi-apartment block on a single piece of land. Before this apartment blocks were predominantly owned as a single property by landlord
Landlord
A landlord is the owner of a house, apartment, condominium, or real estate which is rented or leased to an individual or business, who is called a tenant . When a juristic person is in this position, the term landlord is used. Other terms include lessor and owner...
s.
The introduction of Strata Titles also enabled easier financing arrangements for individuals wishing to purchase a single apartment. Strata titles cover both apartments as well as attached dwellings such as town houses where these have been developed on a single title of land.
Once introduced Strata Titling facilitated the redevelopment, particularly in valuable areas or often close to transport infrastructure, of older housing on larger pieces of land which were replaced with apartment blocks.
Going forward this style of higher density housing is expected to play a large part in meeting housing needs for the changing demographics
Demographics
Demographics are the most recent statistical characteristics of a population. These types of data are used widely in sociology , public policy, and marketing. Commonly examined demographics include gender, race, age, disabilities, mobility, home ownership, employment status, and even location...
of an aging population and smaller households in Australian cities. For example, the Sydney Metropolitan Plan 2036 has a growth target of 70% of all new housing to be in the existing urban footprint, with 80% of all housing to be within a 20 minute commute of a major centre. To facilitate this, the Minister for Planning in NSW released an Urban Renewal Planning Policy to specifically deliver urban renewal in key sites in the Sydney Metropolitan area.
Climate Change
Climate changeClimate change
Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in average weather conditions or the distribution of events around that average...
is an important factor in the decision making
Decision making
Decision making can be regarded as the mental processes resulting in the selection of a course of action among several alternative scenarios. Every decision making process produces a final choice. The output can be an action or an opinion of choice.- Overview :Human performance in decision terms...
process for urban planning
Urban planning
Urban planning incorporates areas such as economics, design, ecology, sociology, geography, law, political science, and statistics to guide and ensure the orderly development of settlements and communities....
in Australia because of the highly urbanised population prone to extreme weather
Weather
Weather is the state of the atmosphere, to the degree that it is hot or cold, wet or dry, calm or stormy, clear or cloudy. Most weather phenomena occur in the troposphere, just below the stratosphere. Weather refers, generally, to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity, whereas climate...
patterns. Australia’s urban areas are susceptible to changes in the climate
Climate
Climate encompasses the statistics of temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall, atmospheric particle count and other meteorological elemental measurements in a given region over long periods...
because of the physical construction of the built environment, infrastructure, and its ecological correlation with the urban ecosystem
Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a biological environment consisting of all the organisms living in a particular area, as well as all the nonliving , physical components of the environment with which the organisms interact, such as air, soil, water and sunlight....
. Over 80% of the Australian population lives in the coastal area of Australia and many on the fringe of bush land and rivers making them vulnerable to the effects of climate change. These effects include sea level rise, increased storm surges resulting in coastal erosion
Coastal erosion
Coastal erosion is the wearing away of land and the removal of beach or dune sediments by wave action, tidal currents, wave currents, or drainage...
, strong winds, intense rainfall causing flash flooding and bushfires due to increased temperatures. The Australian Federal Government is in the process of developing climate adaptation and mitigation strategies along with risk assessment analysis initiatives to urban planning.
Historically urban planning has been the role of the state, regional and local governments but since December 2009 the Australian Federal Government has re-engaged in a strategic decision making process to prepare for climate change
Climate change
Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in average weather conditions or the distribution of events around that average...
. The Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency (DCCEE) has developed adaption programs and risk assessments. A risk assessment has been calculated for possible effects on urban areas due to climate change and replacement values for transport, industrial, residential and commercial infrastructure runs into billions of dollars. Therefore avoidance of future risk is the most cost effective approach to urban planning.
The options for coastal and riverside management to deal with sea level rise and storm surges fall into three categories; “retreat”, “accommodate” and “protect”. “Retreat” entails relocating coastal and riverside infrastructure that are high risk of damage from extreme weather patterns, as well as designing buildings and infrastructures in new locations away from potential risk areas. “Accommodate” means adapting the existing built environments to effectively cope with the changing conditions such as Island raising through adding sand to beaches and raising infrastructure and buildings near the coast and riverside. “Protect” involves building sea walls and levees to prevent damage from storm surges and sea level rise.
There are a number of simple but effective adaptation options possible at a local scale to deal with intense rainfall and temperature rises. These include reducing impervious surfaces to allow for water infiltration, tree planting in urban areas to reduce the “heat island effect” and constructing transport facilities away from flood areas. Designing buildings with natural ventilation and building insulation
Building insulation
building insulation refers broadly to any object in a building used as insulation for any purpose. While the majority of insulation in buildings is for thermal purposes, the term also applies to acoustic insulation, fire insulation, and impact insulation...
will also help with increasing temperatures. While the only possible solution to bushfires might be to increase fire breaks between the houses and bush land.
Heritage and Conservation
Politicians, planners and the community came to see the value of heritage buildings in Australia only recently in the 1970s. Laws and policies are now in place to conserve and protect historic buildings across Australia. The Green BanGreen ban
A green ban is a form of strike action, usually taken by a trade union or other organised labour group, which is conducted for environmentalist or conservationist purposes.-Background:...
is a key aspect in the initiation of these regulations especially the impact it had on proposed urban development in the city of Sydney.
In the early twentieth century there was no historic sense of preservation with regard to the built environment and people were happy to see the old replaced by the new. Then in the 1970’s came the Green Bans movement imposed by builders labourers across Australia, being particularly prominent in Sydney. The Green Ban was created to defend the demolition of older style buildings that were to make way for new developments of skyscrapers, shopping precincts and luxury apartments. It was initiated by the builders labourers that were hired to construct these new buildings and was the first of its kind around the world. The key element of the movement came from the New South Wales Builders Labourers Federation (NSWBLF) which consisted of over 100 union members that belonged to the Communist Party of Australia
Communist Party of Australia
The Communist Party of Australia was founded in 1920 and dissolved in 1991; it was succeeded by the Socialist Party of Australia, which then renamed itself, becoming the current Communist Party of Australia. The CPA achieved its greatest political strength in the 1940s and faced an attempted...
. The most famous union leaders of the NSWBLF were Bob Pringle, Joe Owens and Jack Mundey
Jack Mundey
Jack Mundey is a distinguished Australian union and environmental activist. He came to prominence during the 1970s for leading the New South Wales Builders' Labourers Federation in the famous Green Bans, whereby the BLF led a successful campaign to protect the built and natural environment of...
. Many critics of the union disputed that they were denying workers employment but the union responded that they wanted to build but in a way that enhanced the built environment, such as schools and houses for the everyday person not buildings based on developers' needs. Among the 40 green bans imposed in NSW, The Rocks
The Rocks, New South Wales
The Rocks is an urban locality, tourist precinct and historic area of Sydney's city centre, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. It is located on the southern shore of Sydney Harbour, immediately north-west of the Sydney central business district...
in Sydney was the most significant areas saved. The green ban prevented the demolition of some of the oldest buildings in Australia and beautiful foreshore parks which were going to be replaced by concrete, glass office blocks.
States and territories of Australia have since implemented heritage acts and have heritage frameworks in place to protect buildings and places of cultural significance. On a national scale in 1999 the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act was introduced which outlines a National Heritage List (NHL). The NHL is in place to protect “exceptional natural and cultural places that contribute to Australia's national identity”. Since then measurements of heritage have evolved and in 2011, there are 113 places listed of iconic heritage value to the whole of Australia, which include the Sydney Opera House
Sydney Opera House
The Sydney Opera House is a multi-venue performing arts centre in the Australian city of Sydney. It was conceived and largely built by Danish architect Jørn Utzon, finally opening in 1973 after a long gestation starting with his competition-winning design in 1957...
, Melbourne Cricket Ground
Melbourne Cricket Ground
The Melbourne Cricket Ground is an Australian sports stadium located in Yarra Park, Melbourne and is home to the Melbourne Cricket Club. It is the tenth largest stadium in the world, the largest in Australia, the largest stadium for playing cricket, and holds the world record for the highest light...
and Anzac Parade in Canberra
ANZAC Parade, Canberra
This article is about the road in Canberra. For other uses, see Anzac Parade .ANZAC Parade, a significant road and thoroughfare in the Australian capital Canberra, is used for ceremonial occasions and is the site of many major military memorials.Named in honour of the Australian and New Zealand...
.
Urban planning in Australia in the 21st century now has very strict guidelines to follow and heritage is of fundamental significance in the decision making process before any construction takes place. As developers now know there will always be people watching and ready to protect Australia’s cultural history.
Community Participation
The Australian government has begun to see community engagement in the decision making process of urban planning of fundamental importance. Due to this engagement local governments have looked for ways to design urban infrastructure in a way that helps to encourage social cohesion. However, there is still room for developing a method that uses community involvement more effectively. Community participation has also created many barriers along the way by preventing urban planning projects from proceeding.Previously, urban planning in Australia quite often did not involve the community and projects went ahead to construct residential buildings that were crammed into small areas and did not provide space for recreation and socialising. Recently this approach has changed and planners have realised the importance of creating an urban environment that encourages social behavior among its residents. These new designs incorporate active living and recreational areas that provide for social connectivity and wellbeing. This new approach has come through feedback from the community showing the positive effects of their involvement.
In 2008, the Australian federal government headed by former Prime Minister Kevin Rudd
Kevin Rudd
Kevin Michael Rudd is an Australian politician who was the 26th Prime Minister of Australia from 2007 to 2010. He has been Minister for Foreign Affairs since 2010...
inaugurated the Department of Infrastructure and Transport to work with the newly established Major Cities Unit (MCU)in an effort to involve the community to develop urban environments into more productive and sustainable places. From then on the MCU has been researching ways to develop policies that improve urban planning to make cities more socially inclusive and encouraging the community to actively participate in the decision making process. In May 2011, national urban new policies were released by the Minister for Infrastructure and Transport, Anthony Albanese which promised to: "enhance the livability of cities by promoting better urban design, planning and affordable access to recreational, cultural and community facilities."
There is still a need to develop more effective participation from the community. Often the participants do not represent the views of the whole community and disadvantaged groups such as the poor and minorities do not get a fair say in the urban planning process.
Integrating Land Use and Public Transport
Environmentally friendly
Environmentally friendly are terms used to refer to goods and services, laws, guidelines and policies claimed to inflict minimal or no harm on the environment....
urban system. Some of Australia’s urban problems such as road congestion and pollution could be solved by the improvement of public transport, as it is a crucial aspect in creating a functional, sustainable city. The urban structure of Australian cities consists of dispersed suburbs and dense central building districts which creates immense planning challenges for decision makers. Urban planners now realise the need to integrate active and sustainable public transport with destinations accessible to alternative modes of transport such as cycling and walking to encourage people to reduce the stress of cars on the roads.
Road transport contributes to 88% of all transport emissions and the cities of Australia are congested not only by automobiles but the parking lots they use. In March 2006, 75% of adults in Australian cities travelled to work or study by private automobile in comparison to 19% that used public transport and 5% that walked or cycled. Reducing private automobile dependence will improve the pollution problem and free up land to build more needed infrastructure such as schools, houses and hospitals. To encourage Australians to use public transport research suggests it should be more efficient (timely, reliable, and accessible) and affordable.
The Australian Transport Council has found that the current networks of buses and trains in Australian cities need to be integrated with effective land use
Land use
Land use is the human use of land. Land use involves the management and modification of natural environment or wilderness into built environment such as fields, pastures, and settlements. It has also been defined as "the arrangements, activities and inputs people undertake in a certain land cover...
. At the moment buses and trains run along the same routes competing with each other. Ideally trains are used to travel long distances, with a high passenger capacity and avoid the traffic signals. Buses should be in place as an intermediary for fast inner city train networks and for passengers to access surrounding suburbs not suitable for trains. Land use integration would mean that urban planners design infrastructure around public transport to enable the public to have access to transport within close walking distance from their home or work. Urban planners and policy makers are realizing the need to remove car parks, build upon current transport infrastructure to create a more efficient system that facilitates urban regeneration.
Further Reading
- Bunker R (2009) Situating Australian Metropolitan Planning, International Planning Studies, 14:3 233–252
- Forster C (2006). The challenge of change: Australian cities and urban planning in the new millennium, Geographical Research, 44:2 p 173-182
- Gleeson B (2000). New challenges, new agendas for Australia’s cities, International Planning Studies, 5:3, 269–271
External links
- Planning Institute of Australia
- Planning in South Australia, South Australian Government's Department of Planning and Local Government site