Vallum
Encyclopedia
Vallum is a term applied either to the whole or a portion of the fortifications of a Roman camp. The vallum usually comprised an earthen or turf rampart
(agger
) with a wooden palisade
on top, with a deep outer ditch (fossa
). The name is derived from vallus (a stake), and properly means the palisade which ran along the outer edge of the top of the agger, but is usually used to refer to the whole fortification.
(xviii.18.1, Excerpt. Antiq. xvii.14) and Livy
(Liv. xxiii.5), who make a comparison between the vallum of the Greeks
and that of the Romans, very much to the advantage of the latter. Both used for valli young trees or arms of larger trees, with the side branch
es on them; but the valli of the Greeks were much larger and had more branches than those of the Romans, which had either two or three, or at the most four branches, and these generally on the same side. The Greeks placed their valli in the agger at considerable intervals, the spaces between them being filled up by the branches; the Romans fixed theirs close together, and made the branches interlace, and sharpened their points carefully. Hence the Greek vallus could easily be taken hold of by its large branches and pulled from its place, and when it was removed a large opening was left in the vallum. The Roman vallus, on the contrary, presented no convenient handle, required very great force to pull it down, and even if removed left a very small opening. The Greek valli were cut on the spot; the Romans prepared theirs beforehand.(Polyb. l.c.; Virg. Georg. iii.346, 347; Cic. Tusc. ii.16). They were made of any strong wood, but oak
was preferred.
While on the march, each soldier carried three or four strong wooden stake
s each at least 1.5m (5 ft) long and pointed at both ends. A number of these have been found in excavations, sufficiently well-preserved to show that they were "waisted", that is narrowed at the centre. It is clear that these could not have been used on their own to form the palisade of the vallum constructed around a temporary marching camp; they would have had gaps between wide enough for an attacker to pass through with ease. One suggestion is that the "waist" facilitated them being tied together loosely in threes to form a kind of caltrop
or Czech hedgehog
that could be placed on the rampart (agger) of the vallum. It is likely that these would be augmented with whatever was to hand, such as tree branches or thorn bushes.
In the operations of a siege
, when the place could not be taken by storm, and it became necessary to establish a blockade
, this was done by drawing defences similar to those of a camp
around the town
, which was then said to be circumvallatum. Such a circumvallation, besides cutting off all communication
between the town and the surrounding country, formed a defence against the sallies of the besieged. There was often a double line of fortifications, the inner against the town, and the outer against a force that might attempt to raise the siege. In this case the army
was encamped between the two lines of works.
in the siege of Plataea
(Thucyd
. ii.78, iii.20‑23). Their lines consisted of two walls (apparently of turf
) at the distance of 16 feet, which surrounded the city in the form of a circle. Between the walls were the huts of the besiegers. The walls had battlement
s (ἐπάλξεις), and at every ten battlements was a tower
, filling up by its depth the whole space between the walls. There was a passage for the besiegers through the middle of each tower. On the outside of each wall was a ditch
(τάφρος). This description would almost exactly answer for the Roman mode of circumvallation, of which some of the best examples are that of Carthage
by Scipio
(Appian
, Punic. 119, &c.), that of Numantia
by Scipio (Appian, Hispan. 90), and that of Alesia
by Caesar
(Bell. Gall. vii.72, 73). The towers in such lines were similar to those used in attacking fortified places, but not so high, and of course not moveable. (Lipsius, de Milit. Rom. v.5, in Oper. iii. pp156, 157; Poliorc. ii.1, in Oper. iii.283).
The vallum-building technique was later taken by neighbouring people, such as the Byzantines
and the Goths
.
The word vallus is sometimes used as equivalent to vallum (Caesar, Bell. Civ. iii.63).
Defensive wall
A defensive wall is a fortification used to protect a city or settlement from potential aggressors. In ancient to modern times, they were used to enclose settlements...
(agger
Agger
An agger is an ancient Roman embankment or rampart, or any artificial elevation. It is a Latin word.It is especially used for the raised and cambered embankment carrying a Roman road...
) with a wooden palisade
Palisade
A palisade is a steel or wooden fence or wall of variable height, usually used as a defensive structure.- Typical construction :Typical construction consisted of small or mid sized tree trunks aligned vertically, with no spacing in between. The trunks were sharpened or pointed at the top, and were...
on top, with a deep outer ditch (fossa
Fossa (anatomy)
In anatomical terminology, fossa has come to mean a depression or hollow, in general, in a bone. Other parts of the body may be involved, for example, the antecubital fossa...
). The name is derived from vallus (a stake), and properly means the palisade which ran along the outer edge of the top of the agger, but is usually used to refer to the whole fortification.
Characteristics
The valli (χάρακες), of which the vallum, in the former and more limited sense, was composed, are described by PolybiusPolybius
Polybius , Greek ) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic Period noted for his work, The Histories, which covered the period of 220–146 BC in detail. The work describes in part the rise of the Roman Republic and its gradual domination over Greece...
(xviii.18.1, Excerpt. Antiq. xvii.14) and Livy
Livy
Titus Livius — known as Livy in English — was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people. Ab Urbe Condita Libri, "Chapters from the Foundation of the City," covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome well before the traditional foundation in 753 BC...
(Liv. xxiii.5), who make a comparison between the vallum of the Greeks
Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece is a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Included in Ancient Greece is the...
and that of the Romans, very much to the advantage of the latter. Both used for valli young trees or arms of larger trees, with the side branch
Branch
A branch or tree branch is a woody structural member connected to but not part of the central trunk of a tree...
es on them; but the valli of the Greeks were much larger and had more branches than those of the Romans, which had either two or three, or at the most four branches, and these generally on the same side. The Greeks placed their valli in the agger at considerable intervals, the spaces between them being filled up by the branches; the Romans fixed theirs close together, and made the branches interlace, and sharpened their points carefully. Hence the Greek vallus could easily be taken hold of by its large branches and pulled from its place, and when it was removed a large opening was left in the vallum. The Roman vallus, on the contrary, presented no convenient handle, required very great force to pull it down, and even if removed left a very small opening. The Greek valli were cut on the spot; the Romans prepared theirs beforehand.(Polyb. l.c.; Virg. Georg. iii.346, 347; Cic. Tusc. ii.16). They were made of any strong wood, but oak
Oak
An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus , of which about 600 species exist. "Oak" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus...
was preferred.
While on the march, each soldier carried three or four strong wooden stake
Sudis (stake)
The sudis is a Latin word meaning stake. It was the name given to stakes carried by Roman legionaries for employment as a field fortification, sometimes also called valus...
s each at least 1.5m (5 ft) long and pointed at both ends. A number of these have been found in excavations, sufficiently well-preserved to show that they were "waisted", that is narrowed at the centre. It is clear that these could not have been used on their own to form the palisade of the vallum constructed around a temporary marching camp; they would have had gaps between wide enough for an attacker to pass through with ease. One suggestion is that the "waist" facilitated them being tied together loosely in threes to form a kind of caltrop
Caltrop
A caltrop is an antipersonnel weapon made up of two or more sharp nails or spines arranged in such a manner that one of them always points upward from a stable base...
or Czech hedgehog
Czech hedgehog
The Czech hedgehog or ježek, was a static anti-tank obstacle defence made of angled iron deployed during World War II by various combatants....
that could be placed on the rampart (agger) of the vallum. It is likely that these would be augmented with whatever was to hand, such as tree branches or thorn bushes.
Usage
Siege
A siege is a military blockade of a city or fortress with the intent of conquering by attrition or assault. The term derives from sedere, Latin for "to sit". Generally speaking, siege warfare is a form of constant, low intensity conflict characterized by one party holding a strong, static...
, when the place could not be taken by storm, and it became necessary to establish a blockade
Blockade
A blockade is an effort to cut off food, supplies, war material or communications from a particular area by force, either in part or totally. A blockade should not be confused with an embargo or sanctions, which are legal barriers to trade, and is distinct from a siege in that a blockade is usually...
, this was done by drawing defences similar to those of a camp
Military camp
A military camp or bivouac is a semi-permanent facility for the lodging of an army. Camps are erected when a military force travels away from a major installation or fort during training or operations, and often have the form of large campsites. In the Roman era the military camp had highly...
around the town
Town
A town is a human settlement larger than a village but smaller than a city. The size a settlement must be in order to be called a "town" varies considerably in different parts of the world, so that, for example, many American "small towns" seem to British people to be no more than villages, while...
, which was then said to be circumvallatum. Such a circumvallation, besides cutting off all communication
Communication
Communication is the activity of conveying meaningful information. Communication requires a sender, a message, and an intended recipient, although the receiver need not be present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication; thus communication can occur across vast...
between the town and the surrounding country, formed a defence against the sallies of the besieged. There was often a double line of fortifications, the inner against the town, and the outer against a force that might attempt to raise the siege. In this case the army
Army
An army An army An army (from Latin arma "arms, weapons" via Old French armée, "armed" (feminine), in the broadest sense, is the land-based military of a nation or state. It may also include other branches of the military such as the air force via means of aviation corps...
was encamped between the two lines of works.
Construction
This kind of circumvallation, which the Greeks called ἀποτειχισμός and περιτειχισμός, was employed by the PeloponnesiansPeloponnesian League
The Peloponnesian League was an alliance in the Peloponnesus from the 6th to the 4th centuries BC.- Early history:By the end of the 6th century, Sparta had become the most powerful state in the Peloponnese, and was the political and military hegemon over Argos, the next most powerful state...
in the siege of Plataea
Battle of Plataea
The Battle of Plataea was the final land battle during the second Persian invasion of Greece. It took place in 479 BC near the city of Plataea in Boeotia, and was fought between an alliance of the Greek city-states, including Sparta, Athens, Corinth and Megara, and the Persian Empire of Xerxes...
(Thucyd
Thucydides
Thucydides was a Greek historian and author from Alimos. His History of the Peloponnesian War recounts the 5th century BC war between Sparta and Athens to the year 411 BC...
. ii.78, iii.20‑23). Their lines consisted of two walls (apparently of turf
Sod
Sod or turf is grass and the part of the soil beneath it held together by the roots, or a piece of thin material.The term sod may be used to mean turf grown and cut specifically for the establishment of lawns...
) at the distance of 16 feet, which surrounded the city in the form of a circle. Between the walls were the huts of the besiegers. The walls had battlement
Battlement
A battlement in defensive architecture, such as that of city walls or castles, comprises a parapet , in which portions have been cut out at intervals to allow the discharge of arrows or other missiles. These cut-out portions form crenels...
s (ἐπάλξεις), and at every ten battlements was a tower
Tower
A tower is a tall structure, usually taller than it is wide, often by a significant margin. Towers are distinguished from masts by their lack of guy-wires....
, filling up by its depth the whole space between the walls. There was a passage for the besiegers through the middle of each tower. On the outside of each wall was a ditch
Ditch (fortification)
A ditch in military engineering is an obstacle, designed to slow down or break up an attacking force, while a trench is intended to provide cover to the defenders...
(τάφρος). This description would almost exactly answer for the Roman mode of circumvallation, of which some of the best examples are that of Carthage
Carthage
Carthage , implying it was a 'new Tyre') is a major urban centre that has existed for nearly 3,000 years on the Gulf of Tunis, developing from a Phoenician colony of the 1st millennium BC...
by Scipio
Scipio Africanus
Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus , also known as Scipio Africanus and Scipio the Elder, was a general in the Second Punic War and statesman of the Roman Republic...
(Appian
Appian
Appian of Alexandria was a Roman historian of Greek ethnicity who flourished during the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius.He was born ca. 95 in Alexandria. He tells us that, after having filled the chief offices in the province of Egypt, he went to Rome ca. 120, where he practised as...
, Punic. 119, &c.), that of Numantia
Numantia
Numantia is the name of an ancient Celtiberian settlement, whose remains are located 7 km north of the city of Soria, on a hill known as Cerro de la Muela in the municipality of Garray....
by Scipio (Appian, Hispan. 90), and that of Alesia
Battle of Alesia
The Battle of Alesia or Siege of Alesia took place in September, 52 BC around the Gallic oppidum of Alesia, a major town centre and hill fort of the Mandubii tribe...
by Caesar
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman and a distinguished writer of Latin prose. He played a critical role in the gradual transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire....
(Bell. Gall. vii.72, 73). The towers in such lines were similar to those used in attacking fortified places, but not so high, and of course not moveable. (Lipsius, de Milit. Rom. v.5, in Oper. iii. pp156, 157; Poliorc. ii.1, in Oper. iii.283).
The vallum-building technique was later taken by neighbouring people, such as the Byzantines
Byzantine Greeks
Byzantine Greeks or Byzantines is a conventional term used by modern historians to refer to the medieval Greek or Hellenised citizens of the Byzantine Empire, centered mainly in Constantinople, the southern Balkans, the Greek islands, Asia Minor , Cyprus and the large urban centres of the Near East...
and the Goths
Goths
The Goths were an East Germanic tribe of Scandinavian origin whose two branches, the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths, played an important role in the fall of the Roman Empire and the emergence of Medieval Europe....
.
Examples
Examples of valla include:- "The VallumVallum (Hadrian's Wall)The Vallum is a huge earthwork associated with Hadrian's Wall in England. Unique on any Roman frontier, it runs from coast to coast to the south of the wall....
", a component of Hadrian's WallHadrian's WallHadrian's Wall was a defensive fortification in Roman Britain. Begun in AD 122, during the rule of emperor Hadrian, it was the first of two fortifications built across Great Britain, the second being the Antonine Wall, lesser known of the two because its physical remains are less evident today.The...
(England, Roman) - Trajan's WallTrajan's WallTrajan's Wall is a complex of valla in Eastern Europe: in Romania, Moldova and Ukraine.Contrary to the name and popular belief, the ramparts were not built by Romans during Trajan's reign.-Romania:...
(Romania, Byzantine Age) - Athanaric's WallAthanaric's WallFortification line erected by the king of the Thervings Athanaric, between the banks of river Gerasius and the Danube to the land of Taifali , most probable Athanaric's Wall has reused the old roman limes called: Limes Transalutanus...
(Romania, Moldova, 2-4th century, probably made by the Goths)
Etymology
- Latin vallus derives from Proto-Indo-EuropeanProto-Indo-European languageThe Proto-Indo-European language is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, spoken by the Proto-Indo-Europeans...
*walso-, " a post". Vallus is the source of English wallWallA wall is a usually solid structure that defines and sometimes protects an area. Most commonly, a wall delineates a building and supports its superstructure, separates space in buildings into rooms, or protects or delineates a space in the open air...
.
The word vallus is sometimes used as equivalent to vallum (Caesar, Bell. Civ. iii.63).