Vikram (name)
Encyclopedia
Vikram is a male name in the Hindu
community. The most common understanding of the name Vikram is valorous -- one who is wise, brave and strong as well as victorious. Like many Hindu names, the name Vikram has number of significant interpretations and connections.
, Vikram is composed of two roots:
A literal interpretation of this combination is a 'worker's stride'. This is the original etymology
.
Though the -kr- phoneme in Sanskrit/Hindi is differently represented in this etymology, so the spelling and pronunciation in Devangari would not be the same, its English spelling and pronunciation is unchanged, making it a homonym
, which can be interpreted to refer to 'victorious Rama'.
context, the primary etymological interpretation of the name Vikram as 'worker's stride' can signify a range of concepts around one who undertakes purposeful action. The notion of 'work is worship' is central to the karma yoga
branch of the Yoga
path of Hindu spirituality. A person's karma
consists of the action they take relative to their duties, called dharma
. One's dharma is broadly defined by one's age and position in life—which may be studenthood, familial duties or discipleship of a guru
among others. In karma yoga, the diligent performance of life duties is the path to Nirvana
. The name Vikram then suggests one whose primary path is that of a karma yogi, with supporting commitment to the paths of devotion(bhakti
) or knowledge(jnana
). As these paths are intertwined, the name Vikram may be applied to one who embodies these principle of devoted, thoughtful action. When practiced by a man as a matter of course, it may be recognized as valor—wise, diligent, brave, and strong at once.
(an avatar of Vishnu) urges Prince Arjuna
to engage in his dutiful action, which in that case is to lead his army into war. Arjuna's courage is the most widely known example of the spirit of human valor inspired by an avatar of Vishnu.
, the Godhead of the Vaishnavite tradition. He is the deva
(or deity) who represents the Protector aspect of the trimurti
of Creation, Protection, and Destruction, personified as Brahma
, Vishnu
, and Shiva
in the Vedic
tradition. There are many stories and depictions of Vishnu, as avatars Rama
, Krishna
, Buddha
, Balaji et cetera. The practice of Shaktism
, worship of the Divine Mother
, has replaced Brahma worship as the third major branch of Hindu henotheism
. In the henotheistic and monotheistic Vaishnavite perspectives, Vishnu is the Supreme Lord of all, encompassing and manifesting the Shiva and Shakti aspects of God within his essence the all-powerful loving, caring Protector.
Among the many personifications of the Divine Mother
is Lakshmi
, Vishnu's wife. According to Shaktism
, a man's wife is the source of his shakti
, or loving, divine energy. In this sense, Lakshmi powers Vishnu's Stride, and the name Vikram may be interpreted as signifying the active male expression of shakti.
In the Vedas, Vishnu's stride is also depicted as the rising, setting, and absence of the sun. The deity Surya
is the primary name for the sun deity, one of the most ancient in the Hindu tradition. This name literally means:
Surya's name can be loosely translated literally as 'the moving of the sun'. In this sense, the deity Surya is then metaphorically one personification Vishnu's stride. In Smartism
, Surya is commonly believed to be another manifestation of Vishnu, and is worshipped as a deity in his own right.
Vikram appears one of the first few names in the Vishnu Sahasranama
- a tributary series of lyrics that sing the praise of Vishnu and ascribe one thousand and eight names (Sahasranama
) to Him - each describing a quality of his perceived magnificence. The following quotes are from this complete listing and interpretation of the Vishnu Sahasranama in the various instances where the name Vikram occurs.
eesvaro vikramee dhanvee medhaavee vikramah kramah
(75) Vikramee -One full of prowess (Vikrama), courage, daring. Or, it can be One who has "Special foot steps". This term commemorates how the Lord, as Vamana, measured with His tiny three steps all the three worlds.
(78) Vikramah -While describing the term Vikramee (75) we had already explained the meaning contents of Vikrama, and thus Vikrama is an appellation that had come to Vishnu as a result of His Supernatural Act of measuring the universe with three steps. Shankaracharya's interpretation is He who crosses (Kramana), i.e., transcends samsara. Or one who has Vih, bird, i.e., Garuda as His mount.
Also, Vi means the "king-of-birds", the white-necked eagle; Krama means steps and, therefore, 'movement or travel'. In this sense Vikrama can mean: "One who rides on the white- eagle (mind) is Vishnu"-who is described as having Garuda for His vehicle (Vaahanam).
jeeva vinayitaa-saakshee mukundo-amitavikramah
(58) Amita-vikramah -Of immeasurable Prowess or One whose step (Vikramah) is immeasurable (Amita). The Lord in his Vamana-incarnation measured the three worlds by His three steps, and, therefore, He gained the title of 'Trivikramaha'. Since the Lord's steps are so vast, they are, indeed, immeasurable-Amita- Vikramah.
aanando nandano nandah satyadharmaa trivikramah.
(530) Trivikramah –"One who has taken the three steps". One who has, in three steps, conquered the three worlds in his Vamana-incarnation. The spiritual seeker has only to take three steps to reach the Centre of the Self in him- self. Once he has stepped across the fields-of-experiences in the waking, dream and deep-sleep conditions, he has reached the Infinite Consciousness, the Atman. The very term 'Tri' in Sanskrit means 'the three-worlds.' "The greatest men of reflection have declared the three fields-of-experiences (Loka) by the simple term 'Tri,"-.
epic. The epitome of this victory is that of King Ram as he returns from Lanka
with his bride Sita
having defeated the demon Ravana
to reclaim his throne. In India, this possible association may be a secondary influence the selection of the name, especially among the Kshatriya
caste, who commonly worship the Rama
incarnation of Vishnu. Abroad, the Hindu Philosophical and Vaishnavite meanings may sometimes only be a secondary influence on the selection of the name.
who ruled India for 39 years (375
–414
AD), he may be the namesake of many who are so named. Vikramaditya literally means Strength [of the] Sun. Aditya means son of Aditi
, the most famous of whom was Surya
, the deity representing the Sun. Vikramaditya is a title for a king, many of whom have been given this appellation—one of the more famous ones being Chandragupta II
of the Gupta Empire
.
is available in another English translation entitled Vikram and the Vampire by Sir Richard Burton in 1870.
These two sets of tales about king Vikramaditya have been quite widely popular throughout the Indian subcontinent for many hundreds of years in the oral and written traditions, each evolving local translations and modifications. They are much more commonly known than the scriptural sources.
Hindu
Hindu refers to an identity associated with the philosophical, religious and cultural systems that are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent. As used in the Constitution of India, the word "Hindu" is also attributed to all persons professing any Indian religion...
community. The most common understanding of the name Vikram is valorous -- one who is wise, brave and strong as well as victorious. Like many Hindu names, the name Vikram has number of significant interpretations and connections.
Sanskrit
In SanskritSanskrit
Sanskrit , is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.Buddhism: besides Pali, see Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Today, it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand...
, Vikram is composed of two roots:
- vi -- abbreviated form of the root vish-, meaning 'to work'
- kram -- a step, stride, or path
A literal interpretation of this combination is a 'worker's stride'. This is the original etymology
Etymology
Etymology is the study of the history of words, their origins, and how their form and meaning have changed over time.For languages with a long written history, etymologists make use of texts in these languages and texts about the languages to gather knowledge about how words were used during...
.
Alternate Anglo-Indian
Another possible etymological interpretation of Vikram is- vik- Sanskrit/Indo-European root referring to victory/smart/handsome
- ram- referring to the deity RamaRamaRama or full name Ramachandra is considered to be the seventh avatar of Vishnu in Hinduism, and a king of Ayodhya in ancient Indian...
Though the -kr- phoneme in Sanskrit/Hindi is differently represented in this etymology, so the spelling and pronunciation in Devangari would not be the same, its English spelling and pronunciation is unchanged, making it a homonym
Homonym
In linguistics, a homonym is, in the strict sense, one of a group of words that often but not necessarily share the same spelling and the same pronunciation but have different meanings...
, which can be interpreted to refer to 'victorious Rama'.
Philosophical
In the Hindu philosophyHindu philosophy
Hindu philosophy is divided into six schools of thought, or , which accept the Vedas as supreme revealed scriptures. Three other schools do not accept the Vedas as authoritative...
context, the primary etymological interpretation of the name Vikram as 'worker's stride' can signify a range of concepts around one who undertakes purposeful action. The notion of 'work is worship' is central to the karma yoga
Karma Yoga
Karma yoga , or the "discipline of action" is a form of yoga based on the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita, a sacred Sanskrit scripture of Hinduism. Of the four paths to realization, karma yoga is the science of achieving perfection in action...
branch of the Yoga
Yoga
Yoga is a physical, mental, and spiritual discipline, originating in ancient India. The goal of yoga, or of the person practicing yoga, is the attainment of a state of perfect spiritual insight and tranquility while meditating on Supersoul...
path of Hindu spirituality. A person's karma
Karma
Karma in Indian religions is the concept of "action" or "deed", understood as that which causes the entire cycle of cause and effect originating in ancient India and treated in Hindu, Jain, Buddhist and Sikh philosophies....
consists of the action they take relative to their duties, called dharma
Dharma
Dharma means Law or Natural Law and is a concept of central importance in Indian philosophy and religion. In the context of Hinduism, it refers to one's personal obligations, calling and duties, and a Hindu's dharma is affected by the person's age, caste, class, occupation, and gender...
. One's dharma is broadly defined by one's age and position in life—which may be studenthood, familial duties or discipleship of a guru
Guru
A guru is one who is regarded as having great knowledge, wisdom, and authority in a certain area, and who uses it to guide others . Other forms of manifestation of this principle can include parents, school teachers, non-human objects and even one's own intellectual discipline, if the...
among others. In karma yoga, the diligent performance of life duties is the path to Nirvana
Nirvana
Nirvāṇa ; ) is a central concept in Indian religions. In sramanic thought, it is the state of being free from suffering. In Hindu philosophy, it is the union with the Supreme being through moksha...
. The name Vikram then suggests one whose primary path is that of a karma yogi, with supporting commitment to the paths of devotion(bhakti
Bhakti
In Hinduism Bhakti is religious devotion in the form of active involvement of a devotee in worship of the divine.Within monotheistic Hinduism, it is the love felt by the worshipper towards the personal God, a concept expressed in Hindu theology as Svayam Bhagavan.Bhakti can be used of either...
) or knowledge(jnana
Jnana
Jñāna or gñāna is a Sanskrit and Pali word that means knowledge. It has various nuances of meaning depending on the context. The idea of jnana centers around a cognitive event which is recognized when experienced...
). As these paths are intertwined, the name Vikram may be applied to one who embodies these principle of devoted, thoughtful action. When practiced by a man as a matter of course, it may be recognized as valor—wise, diligent, brave, and strong at once.
Literary
The elucidation of the three major yogic paths (karma, bhakti,jnana) of yoga is a primary focus of the Bhagavad Geeta, in which KrishnaKrishna
Krishna is a central figure of Hinduism and is traditionally attributed the authorship of the Bhagavad Gita. He is the supreme Being and considered in some monotheistic traditions as an Avatar of Vishnu...
(an avatar of Vishnu) urges Prince Arjuna
Arjuna
Arjuna in Indian mythology is the greatest warrior on earth and is one of the Pandavas, the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahābhārata. Arjuna, whose name means 'bright', 'shining', 'white' or 'silver' Arjuna (Devanagari: अर्जुन, Thai: อรชุน, Orachun, Tamil: Arjunan, Indonesian and Javanese: Harjuna,...
to engage in his dutiful action, which in that case is to lead his army into war. Arjuna's courage is the most widely known example of the spirit of human valor inspired by an avatar of Vishnu.
Vaishnavite
As a name, Vikram is commonly known to be derived from VishnuVishnu
Vishnu is the Supreme god in the Vaishnavite tradition of Hinduism. Smarta followers of Adi Shankara, among others, venerate Vishnu as one of the five primary forms of God....
, the Godhead of the Vaishnavite tradition. He is the deva
Deva (Hinduism)
' is the Sanskrit word for god or deity, its related feminine term is devi. In modern Hinduism, it can be loosely interpreted as any benevolent supernatural beings. The devs in Hinduism, also called Suras, are often juxtaposed to the Asuras, their half brothers. Devs are also the maintainers of...
(or deity) who represents the Protector aspect of the trimurti
Trimurti
The Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism "in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified by the forms of Brahmā the creator, Vishnu the maintainer or preserver, and Śhiva the destroyer or transformer," These three deities have been called "the Hindu triad" or...
of Creation, Protection, and Destruction, personified as Brahma
Brahma
Brahma is the Hindu god of creation and one of the Trimurti, the others being Vishnu and Shiva. According to the Brahma Purana, he is the father of Mānu, and from Mānu all human beings are descended. In the Ramayana and the...
, Vishnu
Vishnu
Vishnu is the Supreme god in the Vaishnavite tradition of Hinduism. Smarta followers of Adi Shankara, among others, venerate Vishnu as one of the five primary forms of God....
, and Shiva
Shiva
Shiva is a major Hindu deity, and is the destroyer god or transformer among the Trimurti, the Hindu Trinity of the primary aspects of the divine. God Shiva is a yogi who has notice of everything that happens in the world and is the main aspect of life. Yet one with great power lives a life of a...
in the Vedic
Vedic
Vedic may refer to:* the Vedas, the oldest preserved Indic texts** Vedic Sanskrit, the language of these texts** Vedic period, during which these texts were produced** Vedic pantheon of gods mentioned in Vedas/vedic period...
tradition. There are many stories and depictions of Vishnu, as avatars Rama
Rama
Rama or full name Ramachandra is considered to be the seventh avatar of Vishnu in Hinduism, and a king of Ayodhya in ancient Indian...
, Krishna
Krishna
Krishna is a central figure of Hinduism and is traditionally attributed the authorship of the Bhagavad Gita. He is the supreme Being and considered in some monotheistic traditions as an Avatar of Vishnu...
, Buddha
Gautama Buddha
Siddhārtha Gautama was a spiritual teacher from the Indian subcontinent, on whose teachings Buddhism was founded. In most Buddhist traditions, he is regarded as the Supreme Buddha Siddhārtha Gautama (Sanskrit: सिद्धार्थ गौतम; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual teacher from the Indian...
, Balaji et cetera. The practice of Shaktism
Shaktism
Shaktism is a denomination of Hinduism that focuses worship upon Shakti or Devi – the Hindu Divine Mother – as the absolute, ultimate Godhead...
, worship of the Divine Mother
Divine Mother
Divine Mother or Mother Divine may refer to*Adi parashakti, a goddess of Hindu Mythology*Blessed Virgin Mary, of Roman Catholicism religion*Father Divine, an American religious leader active in the 1930s, and either of his wives:** Edna Rose Ritchings...
, has replaced Brahma worship as the third major branch of Hindu henotheism
Henotheism
Henotheism is the belief and worship of a single god while accepting the existence or possible existence of other deities...
. In the henotheistic and monotheistic Vaishnavite perspectives, Vishnu is the Supreme Lord of all, encompassing and manifesting the Shiva and Shakti aspects of God within his essence the all-powerful loving, caring Protector.
Vishnu's Stride
The Sanskrit word -kram is a root word meaning 'step or stride', so the name Vikram can be understood to mean Vishnu's stride in itself, or as a name which reflects the qualities of Vishnu's stride. In Vedic scripture, Vishnu's stride is said to be over the Earth, the Sky, and the all-pervading omnipresent essence of the Universe.Connection to Lakshmi
Among the many personifications of the Divine Mother
Divine Mother
Divine Mother or Mother Divine may refer to*Adi parashakti, a goddess of Hindu Mythology*Blessed Virgin Mary, of Roman Catholicism religion*Father Divine, an American religious leader active in the 1930s, and either of his wives:** Edna Rose Ritchings...
is Lakshmi
Lakshmi
Lakshmi or Lakumi is the Hindu goddess of wealth, prosperity , light, wisdom, fortune, fertility, generosity and courage; and the embodiment of beauty, grace and charm. Representations of Lakshmi are also found in Jain monuments...
, Vishnu's wife. According to Shaktism
Shaktism
Shaktism is a denomination of Hinduism that focuses worship upon Shakti or Devi – the Hindu Divine Mother – as the absolute, ultimate Godhead...
, a man's wife is the source of his shakti
Shakti
Shakti from Sanskrit shak - "to be able," meaning sacred force or empowerment, is the primordial cosmic energy and represents the dynamic forces that are thought to move through the entire universe in Hinduism. Shakti is the concept, or personification, of divine feminine creative power, sometimes...
, or loving, divine energy. In this sense, Lakshmi powers Vishnu's Stride, and the name Vikram may be interpreted as signifying the active male expression of shakti.
Connection to Surya
In the Vedas, Vishnu's stride is also depicted as the rising, setting, and absence of the sun. The deity Surya
Surya
Surya Suraya or Phra Athit is the chief solar deity in Hinduism, one of the Adityas, son of Kasyapa and one of his wives, Aditi; of Indra; or of Dyaus Pitar . The term Surya also refers to the Sun, in general. Surya has hair and arms of gold...
is the primary name for the sun deity, one of the most ancient in the Hindu tradition. This name literally means:
- Sur - Sun
- ya - present infinitive verb modifier
Surya's name can be loosely translated literally as 'the moving of the sun'. In this sense, the deity Surya is then metaphorically one personification Vishnu's stride. In Smartism
Smartism
Smarta Sampradaya is a liberal or nonsectarian denomination of the Vedic Hindu religion which accept all the major Hindu deities as forms of the one Brahman, in contrast to Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism, the other three major Hindu sects, which revere Vishnu, Shiva, and Shakti,...
, Surya is commonly believed to be another manifestation of Vishnu, and is worshipped as a deity in his own right.
Vishnu Himself
In addition to most literally referring to Vishnu's stride, the name Vikram appears in Hindu scripture as an alternate name of Vishnu himself.Appearances in Vishnu Sahasranama
Vikram appears one of the first few names in the Vishnu Sahasranama
Vishnu sahasranama
The Vishnu sahasranama is a list of 1,000 names of Vishnu, one of the main forms of God in Hinduism and the personal supreme God for Vaishnavas . It is also one of the most sacred and commonly chanted stotras in Hinduism...
- a tributary series of lyrics that sing the praise of Vishnu and ascribe one thousand and eight names (Sahasranama
Sahasranama
A sahasranama is a type of Hindu scripture in which a deity is referred to by 1,000 or more different names. Sahasranamas are classified as stotras, or hymns of praise, a type of devotional scripture. Sahasra means a thousand, or more generally, a very large number. Nama means name...
) to Him - each describing a quality of his perceived magnificence. The following quotes are from this complete listing and interpretation of the Vishnu Sahasranama in the various instances where the name Vikram occurs.
Stanza 9
eesvaro vikramee dhanvee medhaavee vikramah kramah
(75) Vikramee -One full of prowess (Vikrama), courage, daring. Or, it can be One who has "Special foot steps". This term commemorates how the Lord, as Vamana, measured with His tiny three steps all the three worlds.
(78) Vikramah -While describing the term Vikramee (75) we had already explained the meaning contents of Vikrama, and thus Vikrama is an appellation that had come to Vishnu as a result of His Supernatural Act of measuring the universe with three steps. Shankaracharya's interpretation is He who crosses (Kramana), i.e., transcends samsara. Or one who has Vih, bird, i.e., Garuda as His mount.
Also, Vi means the "king-of-birds", the white-necked eagle; Krama means steps and, therefore, 'movement or travel'. In this sense Vikrama can mean: "One who rides on the white- eagle (mind) is Vishnu"-who is described as having Garuda for His vehicle (Vaahanam).
Stanza 55
jeeva vinayitaa-saakshee mukundo-amitavikramah
(58) Amita-vikramah -Of immeasurable Prowess or One whose step (Vikramah) is immeasurable (Amita). The Lord in his Vamana-incarnation measured the three worlds by His three steps, and, therefore, He gained the title of 'Trivikramaha'. Since the Lord's steps are so vast, they are, indeed, immeasurable-Amita- Vikramah.
Stanza 56
aanando nandano nandah satyadharmaa trivikramah.
(530) Trivikramah –"One who has taken the three steps". One who has, in three steps, conquered the three worlds in his Vamana-incarnation. The spiritual seeker has only to take three steps to reach the Centre of the Self in him- self. Once he has stepped across the fields-of-experiences in the waking, dream and deep-sleep conditions, he has reached the Infinite Consciousness, the Atman. The very term 'Tri' in Sanskrit means 'the three-worlds.' "The greatest men of reflection have declared the three fields-of-experiences (Loka) by the simple term 'Tri,"-.
Rama
In cases of Indian diaspora where the Devanagari spelling of Vikram is not used, the name has also been interpreted to refer to the victorious Lord Rama of the RamayanaRamayana
The Ramayana is an ancient Sanskrit epic. It is ascribed to the Hindu sage Valmiki and forms an important part of the Hindu canon , considered to be itihāsa. The Ramayana is one of the two great epics of India and Nepal, the other being the Mahabharata...
epic. The epitome of this victory is that of King Ram as he returns from Lanka
Lanka
Sri Lanka is the name given in Hindu mythology to the island fortress capital of the legendary king Ravana in the great Hindu epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata...
with his bride Sita
SITA
SITA is a multinational information technology company specialising in providing IT and telecommunication services to the air transport industry...
having defeated the demon Ravana
Ravana
' is the primary antagonist character of the Hindu legend, the Ramayana; who is the great king of Lanka. In the classic text, he is mainly depicted negatively, kidnapping Rama's wife Sita, to claim vengeance on Rama and his brother Lakshmana for having cut off the nose of his sister...
to reclaim his throne. In India, this possible association may be a secondary influence the selection of the name, especially among the Kshatriya
Kshatriya
*For the Bollywood film of the same name see Kshatriya Kshatriya or Kashtriya, meaning warrior, is one of the four varnas in Hinduism...
caste, who commonly worship the Rama
Rama
Rama or full name Ramachandra is considered to be the seventh avatar of Vishnu in Hinduism, and a king of Ayodhya in ancient Indian...
incarnation of Vishnu. Abroad, the Hindu Philosophical and Vaishnavite meanings may sometimes only be a secondary influence on the selection of the name.
Historical
While the name Vikram did not originate from the king VikramadityaVikramaditya
Vikramaditya was a legendary emperor of Ujjain, India, famed for his wisdom, valour and magnanimity. The title "Vikramaditya" was later assumed by many other kings in Indian history, notably the Gupta King Chandragupta II and Samrat Hem Chandra Vikramaditya .The name King Vikramaditya is a...
who ruled India for 39 years (375
375
Year 375 was a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year after the Consulship of Augustus and Equitius...
–414
414
Year 414 was a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Constantius and Constans...
AD), he may be the namesake of many who are so named. Vikramaditya literally means Strength [of the] Sun. Aditya means son of Aditi
Aditi
Aditi in Sanskrit, an ancient Indian language. In the Vedas Aditi is mother of the gods from whose cosmic matrix the heavenly bodies were born...
, the most famous of whom was Surya
Surya
Surya Suraya or Phra Athit is the chief solar deity in Hinduism, one of the Adityas, son of Kasyapa and one of his wives, Aditi; of Indra; or of Dyaus Pitar . The term Surya also refers to the Sun, in general. Surya has hair and arms of gold...
, the deity representing the Sun. Vikramaditya is a title for a king, many of whom have been given this appellation—one of the more famous ones being Chandragupta II
Chandragupta II
Chandragupta II the Great, very often referred to as Vikramaditya or Chandragupta Vikramaditya in Sanskrit; was one of the most powerful emperors of the Gupta empire in northern India. His rule spanned c...
of the Gupta Empire
Gupta Empire
The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire which existed approximately from 320 to 550 CE and covered much of the Indian Subcontinent. Founded by Maharaja Sri-Gupta, the dynasty was the model of a classical civilization. The peace and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled the...
.
Literary
King Vikrama's Adventures is a translation of the Vikramacharita, a popular set of 32 tales featuring the historical King Vikramaditya, but which were composed most likely over a millennium after he lived. Another collection of 25 folk stories called the Baital PachisiBaital Pachisi
Baital Pachisi or Vetala Panchavimshati , is a collection of tales and legends within a frame story, from India. It was originally written in Sanskrit....
is available in another English translation entitled Vikram and the Vampire by Sir Richard Burton in 1870.
These two sets of tales about king Vikramaditya have been quite widely popular throughout the Indian subcontinent for many hundreds of years in the oral and written traditions, each evolving local translations and modifications. They are much more commonly known than the scriptural sources.