Volkshalle
Encyclopedia
The also called (“Great Hall”) or (“Hall of Glory”), was a huge dome
d monumental building planned by Adolf Hitler
and his architect Albert Speer
for Germania
. The project was never accomplished.
The word Volk had a particular resonance in Nazi thinking. The term völkisch movement
, which can be translated to English as "the people's movement" or "the folkish
movement", derives from but also implies an otherworldly and eternal essence. Before the First World War, völkisch thought had developed an attitude to the arts as the German ; that is, from an organically linked Aryan
or Nordic community (), racially unpolluted and with its roots in the German soil
of the Heimat
(homeland
).
.jpg)
Just as Augustus
's house on the Palatine
was connected to the temple of Apollo
, so Hitler's palace was to have been connected by a cryptoporticus
to the Volkshalle, which filled the entire north side of the forum. This truly enormous building was, according to Albert Speer
, inspired by Hadrian
's Pantheon
, which Hitler visited privately on May 7, 1938. But Hitler's interest in and admiration for the Pantheon predated this visit, since his sketch of the Volkshalle dates from about 1925. Hermann Giesler
records a conversation he had with Hitler in the winter of 1939/40, when Hitler was recalling his “Roman Impressions” ():
Hitler's impressions of the Roman Pantheon were revived when on June 24, 1940 he made a tour of selected buildings in Paris
, with the German architects Albert Speer
, Hermann Giesler
and Arno Breker
, including the Paris Panthéon
, which seems to have disappointed him. His disappointment is independently recorded by Giesler and Breker.
The sketch of the Volkshalle given by Hitler to Speer shows a traditional gabled pronaos supported by ten columns, a shallow rectangular intermediate block and behind it the domed main building. Giesler notes that the pronaos of the temple in Hitler's sketch is reminiscent of Hadrian's Pantheon and of the style of Friedrich Gilly
or Karl Friedrich Schinkel
. However, there was little about Speer's elaboration of the sketch that might be termed Doric
, except perhaps for the triglyphs in the entablature, supported by the geminated red granite columns with their Egyptian
palm-leaf capitals, previously employed by Speer in the portico outside Hitler's study on the garden side of the new Chancellery
.
Speer's Monster-Building was to be the capital's most important and impressive building in terms of its size and symbolism. Visually it was to have been the architectural centrepiece of Berlin
as the world capital (Welthauptstadt
). Its dimensions were so large that it would have dwarfed every other structure in Berlin, including those on the north-south axis itself. The oculus of the building's dome, 46 metres (150.9 ft) in diameter, would have accommodated the entire rotunda of Hadrian's Pantheon and the dome of St. Peter's Basilica
. The dome of the Volkshalle was to rise from a massive granite podium 315 by 315 m (1,033.5 by 1,033.5 ft) and 74 metres (242.8 ft) high, to a total inclusive height of 290 metres (951.4 ft). The diameter of the dome, 250 metres (820.2 ft), was to be exceeded, much to Speer's annoyance, by the diameter of Giesler's new domed railway station at the east end of Munich's east-west axis. It was to be 15 metres (49.2 ft) greater in diameter than Speer's Volkshalle.
The resemblance of the Volkshalle to the Pantheon is far more obvious when their interiors are compared. The large niche (50 metres high by 28 metres wide) at the north end of the Volkshalle was to be surfaced with gold mosaic and to enclose an eagle 24 metres (78.7 ft) high, beneath which was situated Hitler's tribunal. From here he would address 180,000 listeners, some standing in the central round arena, others seated in three concentric tiers of seats crowned by one hundred marble pillars, 24 metres (78.7 ft) high, which rose to meet the base of the coffered ceiling
suspended from steel girders sheathed on the exterior with copper.
The three concentric tiers of seats enclosing a circular arena 140 metres (459.3 ft) in diameter owe nothing to the Pantheon but resemble the seating arrangements in Ludwig Ruff
's Congress Hall at Nuremberg, which was modeled on the Colosseum
. Other features of the Volkshalle's interior are clearly indebted to Hadrian's Pantheon: the coffer
ed dome
, the pillared zone, which here is continuous, except where it flanks the huge niche on the north side. The second zone in the Pantheon, consisting of blind windows with intervening pilaster
s, is represented in Speer's building by a zone above the pillars consisting of uniform, oblong shallow recesses. The coffered dome rests on this zone. The design and size of the external decoration of this Volkshalle, are all exceptional and call for explanations that do not apply to community halls planned for Nazi fora in other German cities.
The temple-like nature of the domed building was noted by Speer, who surmised that the building was ultimately intended for the worship of Hitler and his successors, that is, it was to be a dynastic temple/palace complex of the kind Augustus built on the Palatine
, where his modest house was connected to the temple of Apollo
.
Hitler's aspirations to world domination
and the establishment of his New Order
, already evident from architectural and decorative features of the new Chancellery, are even more clearly expressed here. External symbols suggest that the domed hall was where Hitler as cosmocrator would appear before his Herrenvolk: On top of the dome's lantern was an eagle grasping in its claws not the usual swastika but the globe of the Earth (). This combination of eagle and ball was well known in imperial Roman iconography, for example, the restored statue of Claudius
holding a ball and eagle in his right hand. The vast dome, on which it rested, as with Hadrian's Pantheon, symbolically represented the vault of the sky spanning Hitler's world empire. The globe on the dome's lantern was enhanced and emphasized by two monumental sculptures by Breker, each 15 metres high, which flanked the north façade of the building: at its west end Atlas
supporting the heavens, at its east end Tellus
supporting the Earth. Both mythological figures were according to Speer, chosen by Hitler himself. Despite the evidence these overt and largely traditional imperialistic symbols of domination over urbs and orbis, Giesler says that Speer was wrong to represent the Volkshalle as a symbol of World Domination (). Speer in his Playboy magazine interview states:
Nevertheless, Giesler remarked that Hitler never made plans for world domination and that to suggest as much is not only nonsense () but 'Speer Rubbish' ().
Although the Volkshalle was never built, critics claimed it might have severe architectural problems, such as acoustics
that would (depending on the critic) either make it impossible to hear a speaker, or would magnify the speaker's voice to such a volume that it might cause deafness.
In an interview with James P. O'Donnell
, Speer said that, during his time in Spandau Prison
, he constantly reviewed such criticisms of his architecture, and eliminated (in his opinion) many of them. One problem, however, remained—Speer speculated that during cold weather, the breathing and perspiration of 180,000 occupants in such a large and high dome might precipitate and fall back down. In short, it was possible that the hall might have its own 'weather' and create indoor rain
because of its overcapacity. This phenomenon has been observed in other very large buildings that have been constructed in reality, such as the Kennedy Space Center's Vehicle Assembly Building
, and (on a minor scale, with light mist as the precipitation on high humidity days) inside the Goodyear Airdock
in Akron, Ohio
.
Because Berlin is a city founded on swampland, the engineers conducted several experiments to see how this huge building could be built on the muddy ground. A standing relic of this testing is the (literal translation: “Heavy load-bearing body”) on Dudenstrasse in Berlin. It is a vertical cylinder constructed out of 12,650 tons of concrete, standing 18 meters tall and was constructed on the site of a proposed triumphal arch that would be placed on the large avenue leading up to the Volkshalle. It could not be demolished with explosives shortly after the war due to nearby apartment buildings, and so was left in place. Since 1995, it has been counted as an historic monument to be preserved.
Similar architecture commissioned by Joseph Stalin
for Moscow:
Dome
A dome is a structural element of architecture that resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere. Dome structures made of various materials have a long architectural lineage extending into prehistory....
d monumental building planned by Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party , commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and head of state from 1934 to 1945...
and his architect Albert Speer
Albert Speer
Albert Speer, born Berthold Konrad Hermann Albert Speer, was a German architect who was, for a part of World War II, Minister of Armaments and War Production for the Third Reich. Speer was Adolf Hitler's chief architect before assuming ministerial office...
for Germania
Welthauptstadt Germania
Welthauptstadt Germania refers to the projected renewal of the German capital Berlin during the Nazi period, part of Adolf Hitler's vision for the future of Germany after the planned victory in World War II...
. The project was never accomplished.
The word Volk had a particular resonance in Nazi thinking. The term völkisch movement
Völkisch movement
The volkisch movement is the German interpretation of the populist movement, with a romantic focus on folklore and the "organic"...
, which can be translated to English as "the people's movement" or "the folkish
Folk
The English word Folk is derived from a Germanic noun, *fulka meaning "people" or "army"...
movement", derives from but also implies an otherworldly and eternal essence. Before the First World War, völkisch thought had developed an attitude to the arts as the German ; that is, from an organically linked Aryan
Aryan
Aryan is an English language loanword derived from Sanskrit ārya and denoting variously*In scholarly usage:**Indo-Iranian languages *in dated usage:**the Indo-European languages more generally and their speakers...
or Nordic community (), racially unpolluted and with its roots in the German soil
Blood and soil
Blood and Soil refers to an ideology that focuses on ethnicity based on two factors, descent and homeland/Heimat...
of the Heimat
Heimat
Heimat is a German word that has no simple English translation. It is often expressed with terms such as home or homeland, but these English counterparts fail to encapsulate the true meaning of the word.-The meaning of Heimat:...
(homeland
Homeland
A homeland is the concept of the place to which an ethnic group holds a long history and a deep cultural association with —the country in which a particular national identity began. As a common noun, it simply connotes the country of one's origin...
).
Hitler and Hadrian's Pantheon
Augustus
Augustus ;23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) is considered the first emperor of the Roman Empire, which he ruled alone from 27 BC until his death in 14 AD.The dates of his rule are contemporary dates; Augustus lived under two calendars, the Roman Republican until 45 BC, and the Julian...
's house on the Palatine
Palatine Hill
The Palatine Hill is the centermost of the Seven Hills of Rome and is one of the most ancient parts of the city...
was connected to the temple of Apollo
Apollo
Apollo is one of the most important and complex of the Olympian deities in Greek and Roman mythology...
, so Hitler's palace was to have been connected by a cryptoporticus
Cryptoporticus
In Ancient Roman architecture a cryptoporticus is a covered corridor or passageway. The usual English is "cryptoportico". The cryptoportico is a semi-subterranean gallery whose vaulting supports portico structures aboveground and which is lit from openings at the tops of its arches...
to the Volkshalle, which filled the entire north side of the forum. This truly enormous building was, according to Albert Speer
Albert Speer
Albert Speer, born Berthold Konrad Hermann Albert Speer, was a German architect who was, for a part of World War II, Minister of Armaments and War Production for the Third Reich. Speer was Adolf Hitler's chief architect before assuming ministerial office...
, inspired by Hadrian
Hadrian
Hadrian , was Roman Emperor from 117 to 138. He is best known for building Hadrian's Wall, which marked the northern limit of Roman Britain. In Rome, he re-built the Pantheon and constructed the Temple of Venus and Roma. In addition to being emperor, Hadrian was a humanist and was philhellene in...
's Pantheon
Pantheon, Rome
The Pantheon ,Rarely Pantheum. This appears in Pliny's Natural History in describing this edifice: Agrippae Pantheum decoravit Diogenes Atheniensis; in columnis templi eius Caryatides probantur inter pauca operum, sicut in fastigio posita signa, sed propter altitudinem loci minus celebrata.from ,...
, which Hitler visited privately on May 7, 1938. But Hitler's interest in and admiration for the Pantheon predated this visit, since his sketch of the Volkshalle dates from about 1925. Hermann Giesler
Hermann Giesler
Hermann Giesler was a German architect during the Nazi era, one of the two architects most favored and rewarded by Adolf Hitler ....
records a conversation he had with Hitler in the winter of 1939/40, when Hitler was recalling his “Roman Impressions” ():
Hitler's impressions of the Roman Pantheon were revived when on June 24, 1940 he made a tour of selected buildings in Paris
Paris
Paris is the capital and largest city in France, situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region...
, with the German architects Albert Speer
Albert Speer
Albert Speer, born Berthold Konrad Hermann Albert Speer, was a German architect who was, for a part of World War II, Minister of Armaments and War Production for the Third Reich. Speer was Adolf Hitler's chief architect before assuming ministerial office...
, Hermann Giesler
Hermann Giesler
Hermann Giesler was a German architect during the Nazi era, one of the two architects most favored and rewarded by Adolf Hitler ....
and Arno Breker
Arno Breker
Arno Breker was a German sculptor, best known for his public works in Nazi Germany, which were endorsed by the authorities as the antithesis of degenerate art....
, including the Paris Panthéon
Panthéon, Paris
The Panthéon is a building in the Latin Quarter in Paris. It was originally built as a church dedicated to St. Genevieve and to house the reliquary châsse containing her relics but, after many changes, now functions as a secular mausoleum containing the remains of distinguished French citizens...
, which seems to have disappointed him. His disappointment is independently recorded by Giesler and Breker.
The sketch of the Volkshalle given by Hitler to Speer shows a traditional gabled pronaos supported by ten columns, a shallow rectangular intermediate block and behind it the domed main building. Giesler notes that the pronaos of the temple in Hitler's sketch is reminiscent of Hadrian's Pantheon and of the style of Friedrich Gilly
Friedrich Gilly
Friedrich David Gilly was a German architect and the son of the architect David Gilly.Born in Altdamm , Pomerania , Gilly was known as a prodigy and the teacher of the young Karl Friedrich Schinkel. In 1788 he enrolled at the Akademie der Bildenden Künste in Berlin...
or Karl Friedrich Schinkel
Karl Friedrich Schinkel
Karl Friedrich Schinkel was a Prussian architect, city planner, and painter who also designed furniture and stage sets. Schinkel was one of the most prominent architects of Germany and designed both neoclassical and neogothic buildings.-Biography:Schinkel was born in Neuruppin, Margraviate of...
. However, there was little about Speer's elaboration of the sketch that might be termed Doric
Doric order
The Doric order was one of the three orders or organizational systems of ancient Greek or classical architecture; the other two canonical orders were the Ionic and the Corinthian.-History:...
, except perhaps for the triglyphs in the entablature, supported by the geminated red granite columns with their Egyptian
Egyptian Arabic
Egyptian Arabic is the language spoken by contemporary Egyptians.It is more commonly known locally as the Egyptian colloquial language or Egyptian dialect ....
palm-leaf capitals, previously employed by Speer in the portico outside Hitler's study on the garden side of the new Chancellery
Reich Chancellery
The Reich Chancellery was the traditional name of the office of the Chancellor of Germany in the period of the German Reich from 1871 to 1945...
.
Speer's Monster-Building was to be the capital's most important and impressive building in terms of its size and symbolism. Visually it was to have been the architectural centrepiece of Berlin
Berlin
Berlin is the capital city of Germany and is one of the 16 states of Germany. With a population of 3.45 million people, Berlin is Germany's largest city. It is the second most populous city proper and the seventh most populous urban area in the European Union...
as the world capital (Welthauptstadt
Welthauptstadt Germania
Welthauptstadt Germania refers to the projected renewal of the German capital Berlin during the Nazi period, part of Adolf Hitler's vision for the future of Germany after the planned victory in World War II...
). Its dimensions were so large that it would have dwarfed every other structure in Berlin, including those on the north-south axis itself. The oculus of the building's dome, 46 metres (150.9 ft) in diameter, would have accommodated the entire rotunda of Hadrian's Pantheon and the dome of St. Peter's Basilica
St. Peter's Basilica
The Papal Basilica of Saint Peter , officially known in Italian as ' and commonly known as Saint Peter's Basilica, is a Late Renaissance church located within the Vatican City. Saint Peter's Basilica has the largest interior of any Christian church in the world...
. The dome of the Volkshalle was to rise from a massive granite podium 315 by 315 m (1,033.5 by 1,033.5 ft) and 74 metres (242.8 ft) high, to a total inclusive height of 290 metres (951.4 ft). The diameter of the dome, 250 metres (820.2 ft), was to be exceeded, much to Speer's annoyance, by the diameter of Giesler's new domed railway station at the east end of Munich's east-west axis. It was to be 15 metres (49.2 ft) greater in diameter than Speer's Volkshalle.
The resemblance of the Volkshalle to the Pantheon is far more obvious when their interiors are compared. The large niche (50 metres high by 28 metres wide) at the north end of the Volkshalle was to be surfaced with gold mosaic and to enclose an eagle 24 metres (78.7 ft) high, beneath which was situated Hitler's tribunal. From here he would address 180,000 listeners, some standing in the central round arena, others seated in three concentric tiers of seats crowned by one hundred marble pillars, 24 metres (78.7 ft) high, which rose to meet the base of the coffered ceiling
Coffer
A coffer in architecture, is a sunken panel in the shape of a square, rectangle, or octagon in a ceiling, soffit or vault...
suspended from steel girders sheathed on the exterior with copper.
The three concentric tiers of seats enclosing a circular arena 140 metres (459.3 ft) in diameter owe nothing to the Pantheon but resemble the seating arrangements in Ludwig Ruff
Ludwig Ruff
Ludwig Ruff was an architect during the National Socialist regime in Germany, the father of Franz Ruff and responsible for beginning the Nuremberg Party Congress Hall before his death in 1934.-External links:*...
's Congress Hall at Nuremberg, which was modeled on the Colosseum
Colosseum
The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre , is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire...
. Other features of the Volkshalle's interior are clearly indebted to Hadrian's Pantheon: the coffer
Coffer
A coffer in architecture, is a sunken panel in the shape of a square, rectangle, or octagon in a ceiling, soffit or vault...
ed dome
Dome
A dome is a structural element of architecture that resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere. Dome structures made of various materials have a long architectural lineage extending into prehistory....
, the pillared zone, which here is continuous, except where it flanks the huge niche on the north side. The second zone in the Pantheon, consisting of blind windows with intervening pilaster
Pilaster
A pilaster is a slightly-projecting column built into or applied to the face of a wall. Most commonly flattened or rectangular in form, pilasters can also take a half-round form or the shape of any type of column, including tortile....
s, is represented in Speer's building by a zone above the pillars consisting of uniform, oblong shallow recesses. The coffered dome rests on this zone. The design and size of the external decoration of this Volkshalle, are all exceptional and call for explanations that do not apply to community halls planned for Nazi fora in other German cities.
The temple-like nature of the domed building was noted by Speer, who surmised that the building was ultimately intended for the worship of Hitler and his successors, that is, it was to be a dynastic temple/palace complex of the kind Augustus built on the Palatine
Palatine Hill
The Palatine Hill is the centermost of the Seven Hills of Rome and is one of the most ancient parts of the city...
, where his modest house was connected to the temple of Apollo
Apollo
Apollo is one of the most important and complex of the Olympian deities in Greek and Roman mythology...
.
Hitler's aspirations to world domination
Hegemony
Hegemony is an indirect form of imperial dominance in which the hegemon rules sub-ordinate states by the implied means of power rather than direct military force. In Ancient Greece , hegemony denoted the politico–military dominance of a city-state over other city-states...
and the establishment of his New Order
New Order (political system)
The New Order or the New Order of Europe was the political order which the Nazis wanted to impose on Europe, and eventually the rest of the world, during their reign over Germany from 1933 to 1945...
, already evident from architectural and decorative features of the new Chancellery, are even more clearly expressed here. External symbols suggest that the domed hall was where Hitler as cosmocrator would appear before his Herrenvolk: On top of the dome's lantern was an eagle grasping in its claws not the usual swastika but the globe of the Earth (). This combination of eagle and ball was well known in imperial Roman iconography, for example, the restored statue of Claudius
Claudius
Claudius , was Roman Emperor from 41 to 54. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, he was the son of Drusus and Antonia Minor. He was born at Lugdunum in Gaul and was the first Roman Emperor to be born outside Italy...
holding a ball and eagle in his right hand. The vast dome, on which it rested, as with Hadrian's Pantheon, symbolically represented the vault of the sky spanning Hitler's world empire. The globe on the dome's lantern was enhanced and emphasized by two monumental sculptures by Breker, each 15 metres high, which flanked the north façade of the building: at its west end Atlas
Atlas (mythology)
In Greek mythology, Atlas was the primordial Titan who supported the heavens. Although associated with various places, he became commonly identified with the Atlas Mountains in north-west Africa...
supporting the heavens, at its east end Tellus
Tellus
Tellus is a Latin word meaning "earth" and may refer to:* Terra or Terra Mater, the Roman Earth Mother goddess* Tellus , a citizen of ancient Athens who was thought to be the happiest of men...
supporting the Earth. Both mythological figures were according to Speer, chosen by Hitler himself. Despite the evidence these overt and largely traditional imperialistic symbols of domination over urbs and orbis, Giesler says that Speer was wrong to represent the Volkshalle as a symbol of World Domination (). Speer in his Playboy magazine interview states:
Nevertheless, Giesler remarked that Hitler never made plans for world domination and that to suggest as much is not only nonsense () but 'Speer Rubbish' ().
Possible architectural problems
Acoustics
Acoustics is the interdisciplinary science that deals with the study of all mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids including vibration, sound, ultrasound and infrasound. A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an acoustician while someone working in the field of acoustics...
that would (depending on the critic) either make it impossible to hear a speaker, or would magnify the speaker's voice to such a volume that it might cause deafness.
In an interview with James P. O'Donnell
James P. O'Donnell
James Preston O'Donnell was an author and journalist.-Early life:...
, Speer said that, during his time in Spandau Prison
Spandau Prison
Spandau Prison was a prison situated in the borough of Spandau in western Berlin, constructed in 1876 and demolished in 1987 after the death of its last prisoner, Rudolf Hess, to prevent it from becoming a neo-Nazi shrine. The prison was near, though not part of, the Renaissance-era Spandau Citadel...
, he constantly reviewed such criticisms of his architecture, and eliminated (in his opinion) many of them. One problem, however, remained—Speer speculated that during cold weather, the breathing and perspiration of 180,000 occupants in such a large and high dome might precipitate and fall back down. In short, it was possible that the hall might have its own 'weather' and create indoor rain
Rain
Rain is liquid precipitation, as opposed to non-liquid kinds of precipitation such as snow, hail and sleet. Rain requires the presence of a thick layer of the atmosphere to have temperatures above the melting point of water near and above the Earth's surface...
because of its overcapacity. This phenomenon has been observed in other very large buildings that have been constructed in reality, such as the Kennedy Space Center's Vehicle Assembly Building
Vehicle Assembly Building
The Vehicle Assembly Building, or VAB, at NASA's Kennedy Space Center was used to assemble and house American manned launch vehicles from 1968-2011. It is the fourth largest building in the world by volume...
, and (on a minor scale, with light mist as the precipitation on high humidity days) inside the Goodyear Airdock
Goodyear Airdock
The Goodyear Airdock is an airship storage and construction hangar in Akron, Ohio.-History:Built and previously owned by the Goodyear-Zeppelin Corporation, later Goodyear Aerospace, it was constructed from April 20, 1929 to November 25, 1929, at a cost of $2.2 million...
in Akron, Ohio
Akron, Ohio
Akron , is the fifth largest city in the U.S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Summit County. It is located in the Great Lakes region approximately south of Lake Erie along the Little Cuyahoga River. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 199,110. The Akron Metropolitan...
.
Because Berlin is a city founded on swampland, the engineers conducted several experiments to see how this huge building could be built on the muddy ground. A standing relic of this testing is the (literal translation: “Heavy load-bearing body”) on Dudenstrasse in Berlin. It is a vertical cylinder constructed out of 12,650 tons of concrete, standing 18 meters tall and was constructed on the site of a proposed triumphal arch that would be placed on the large avenue leading up to the Volkshalle. It could not be demolished with explosives shortly after the war due to nearby apartment buildings, and so was left in place. Since 1995, it has been counted as an historic monument to be preserved.
See also
- Nazi architectureNazi architectureNazi architecture was an architectural plan which played a role in the Nazi party's plans to create a cultural and spiritual rebirth in Germany as part of the Third Reich....
Similar architecture commissioned by Joseph Stalin
Joseph Stalin
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin was the Premier of the Soviet Union from 6 May 1941 to 5 March 1953. He was among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who brought about the October Revolution and had held the position of first General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee...
for Moscow:
- Palace of the Soviets
- NarkomtiazhpromNarkomtiazhpromThe Narkomtiazhprom was a 1934 architectural contest for the People's Commissariat of Construction of Heavy Industry, to be constructed in Red Square, Moscow...
architectural contest (1934) - All-Russia Exhibition CentreAll-Russia Exhibition CentreAll-Russia Exhibition Centre is a permanent general-purpose trade show in Moscow, Russia....
(1936–1939, 1951–1954) - Seven Sisters (Moscow)Seven Sisters (Moscow)The "Seven Sisters" is the English name given to a group of Moscow skyscrapers designed in the Stalinist style. Muscovites call them Vysotki or Stalinskie Vysotki , " high-rises"...
(1947–1954)