Volusianus (L. Petronius Taurus)
Encyclopedia
Volusianus was a Roman general and senior official of the mid-Third Century AD who distinguished himself in both the military and the civil spheres of public life. (In the period of the early Empire – i.e. from the accession of Augustus
to that of Diocletian
- most officials of the highest rank served in both capacities at different times in their careers). Although Volusianus may have begun his career under the aegis of Valerian
(or even earlier) he rose to prominence in the reign of Gallienus
and was obviously one of that Emperor’s most trusted (and trustworthy) aides at a time when the Licinnian dynasty was in urgent need of such support.
It may not be without significance that Volusianus seems to have been an Etruscan or, at least, had strong connections with that region of Italy like the Emperors Valerian and Gallienus who advanced his career. He may even have been related to the Imperial family. At a time when Illyrian and other officers of Balkans origin were so prominent in the military leadership of the Imperial forces - or at least those units available to Gallienus as defender of the European provinces - yet their loyalty to the regime was so problematical it is easy to believe that that Volusianus' origin was a factor in his extraordinary advance to the highest offices.
It is a pity that the paucity of our records of this era renders any attempt to assess the political and military significance of his career purely speculative. Nevertheless his career illustrates yet again the opportunities for advancement enjoyed by young soldiers of relatively humble backgrounds during the troubled reign of Gallienus.
of the municipium
of Arretium (Arezzo
) of which he was a patron. The inscription is helpfully interpreted by Jones et al.. in their prospography and also by Bray. As a Consul
and Urban Prefect he is mentioned in the Fasti Romani, i.e. the record of Roman office-holders.
'Lucius' of the Petronii clan. His Roman Voting Tribe
was the Sabatinae. Sabatina was a district in Etruria
and it is likely that the family was of Etruscan origin. Volusianus’s patronage of Arezzo in later life (see above) does not necessarily mean that he was born there, but it does indicate some strong regional connection. It is possible that the clan Petronii Volusianii was related to the Licinii dynasty, also of Etruscan provenance, of which Valerian
and Gallienus
were the most distinguished members. His Etruscan origins and relationship to the Imperial family could in part explain the rapidity of Volusianus’s rise in the 250-60s.
When his recorded career began he was already of equestrian rank – see below - but we do not know if he was born into that level of society or achieved it as a result of his career. He would probably have become a senator when he was appointed Consul in 261 - see below.
Volusianus's name 'Taurus' – i.e. ‘Bull’ - may be an agnomen
or nickname conferred on him because he had a massive physique. The careers of such third century soldiers as the Thracian Maximinus I and the Moesian Claudius II
who rose from lowly origins to Imperial status suggests that unusual physical prowess was a positive advantage in securing advancement in the army at this time. However, this suggestion is purely conjectural. We do not know enough about Volusianus to determine whether 'Taurus' was a true nickname specific to him alone in his family or whether it was an hereditary cognomen
conferred at birth whether or not justified by any personal attribute.
- LAVRENS LAVINAS – This signifies the holding of a minor priesthood. The holders had to be of equestrian status;
- EX V DECVRIIS – Signifies membership of one of the equestrian panels of five judges available to decide issues of fact;
- EQVO PVBLICO – Indicates that he had taken part in the annual parade of the equestrian order in Rome;
- CENTVRIO DEPVTATVS – One of the commanders of the troops detached from the provincial armies for special service about the Emperor. When the Emperors were in Rome these were quartered at the Castra Peregrina Peregrina on the Caelian Hill
. If his family was of equestrian origin Volusianus is likely to have enlisted in the army at the rank of centurion
or, perhaps, optio ad spem ordinis (centurion’s adjutant awaiting a promotion) thus obviating long years of service in the ranks;
- PRIMVS PILVS (see Pilus) LEGIONIS XXX VLPIAE – Senior ranking centurion of this legion which was normally stationed at Castra Vetera Xanten
in Germania Inferior
. It is likely that he held this appointment when Gallienus was campaigning against the Franks
early in his reign. However, he is likely first to have come to Gallienus’s attention when he was Centurio Deputatus – unless, of course, he already had some family/Etruscan regional connection to the Imperial family (see above);
- PRAEPOSITVS EQVITVM SINGVLIARORVM AVGG NN - Commander of a troop of 'household' cavalry serving directly under the Emperor. The form Augg NN (i.e. Augusti Nostri– i.e. 'of Our (Lords) the Augustuses)’ indicates that there were two Emperors when Volusianus held this office – i.e. Valerian
and Gallienus
. This appointment would have been made by Gallienus directly – perhaps with the final approval of Valerian;
- LEGIONIS X ET XIII GEMINAE PROVINCIAE PANNONIAE ITIM (ITEM?) LEGIONIS DACIAE – Indicates that he was commander (dux) of a legionary detachment made up of units from 2 twinned legions, X which had its main base at Vindobana in Upper Pannonia
(modern Vienna
, Austria
)and XIII from Apulum
, Dacia
(modern Alba Julia, Romania
). This detachment is likely to have been part of Gallienus's Imperial Field Army Comitatus
and have been quartered in districts near the Imperial HQ. (The willingness of Gallienus to reduce the forces available for frontier defence in Dacia and Pannonia in order to supplement the forces under his direct command does much to explain the resentment felt against him by the garrisons of those provinces and their willingness to support Ingenuus
, Regalianus
and Macrianus
;
- TRIBVNVS COHORTIS III VIGILUM; XI VRBANAE; III PRAETORIAE – Indicates he was successively commander of cohorts of the Vigiles
(Roman Watch) (255?), the Urban cohorts(256?), and the Praetorian Guard
(257?). He may have been posted to Rome to serve his time in the Watch and the Urban Cohorts, but given that Gallienus was very active in Germany and the Balkans in these years and that Volusianus was obviously one of his most trusted commanders it is quite possible that his command of these units was only titular and that his duties in Rome were carried out by deputies while Volusianus himself continued to serve 'In the Imperial Presence'. See also discussion below regarding his later appointment as Prefect of the City Watch. An alternative explanation is the exigencies of defending the northern frontiers had encouraged Gallienus to cut the garrison of Rome to the bone and that these units were serving with the Imperial field army at this time, possibly as a composite force.
It is likely in any case that Cohort III, Praetorian Guard, was a part of Gallienus’s Imperial Field Army or Comitatus
in the late 250s;
- TRIBVNVS COHORTIS I PRAETORIAE PROTECTOR AVGG NN – This appointment is placed by Jones in 259 - the Augg NN format indicates that it was still in the joint reign of Valerian and Galllienus. The cohort was almost certainly a part of the Imperial Field Army. This is the first known reference to the new order of Protectores Augusti Nostri
(Defenders of Our August Lords);
- PRAEFECTVS VIGILVM PERFECTISSIMVS VIR – Volusianus is now Prefect of the Watch (probably 259). Again he could well have remained with Gallienus's military entourage peripatetic on the northern frontiers while a deputy carried out his duties in Rome. This was the year of a major invasion of Italy by the Alamanni
/Juthingi (and possibly the Marcomanni
as well) and it seems remarkable that Gallienus should have sent one of his most favoured commanders to Rome when his Comitatus was so heavily engaged However, whether or not this applied in the case of Volusianus is, at least, questionable. As will be noted below, despite his rapid rise through the military hierarchy, there is reason to suspect that he was not a particularly effective commander and Gallienus may have thought that he would be more usefully employed steadying morale in Rome than in hunting down the Alaman intruders in the field. Perfectissimus Vir was an honorific reserved for equestrian office-holders of the second grade;
- PRAEFECTVUS PRAETORIO EMINENTISSIVS VIR – About 260(?). Praetorian Prefect
was the highest office in the Empire below the Emperor himself. It had both military and civil responsibilities. The office was usually served ‘in the Imperial Presence’. Eminentissimus Vir (lit 'Most Eminent Man') was the highest equestrian honorific – perhaps equivalent to ‘His Excellency’. It is not known who Volusianus succeeded in this office. However, most authorities seem agreed that his predecessor was Silvanus
(or Albanus).
If, as seems likely, Volusianus was an Etruscan and an associate of the Imperial dynasty - see above - his appointment as Praetorian Prefect at this time could have had great political significance. Gallienus certainly needed somebody who could act as a counterweight to the Illyrian cadres who seem to have dominated the officer corps of the comitatus and the Danube garrisons alike and whose loyalty to the regime was so manifestly febrile. The rebellion of Ingenuus
was still a recent memory in 260 when Volusianus was made Praetorian Prefect; in that very year a significant proportion of the Pannonian garrison was to declare for Regalianus
; and in the following year Macrianus
's bid for the Empire also found significant support among the troops in the Illyrian provinces.
Given this situation it is particularly frustrating that our records have nothing to say of Volusianus' activities in his key office. He is not recorded as being involved in the campaigns that the Gallienus regime was forced to wage against the Illyrian usurpers and Postumus
when Aureolus
seems to have been the Emperor's right-hand man. It is possible that Volusianus owed his glittering career more to his closeness to Gallienus than to any particular military genius. Gallienus's appointments seem always to have had soem basis in merit, but Volusianus could well have been an effective military administrator without being an outstanding soldier in an age of outstanding soldiers. There is no way of knowing;
- VIR CONSULARIS – According to the fasti Volusianus was consul ordinarius with Gallienus in 261. The alternative interpretations to be put on this appointment must influence the assessment of Volusianus as a military man and as a close companion comes of the Emperor.
Traditionally it was certainly the case that men of senatorial rank could not be appointed to the Praetorian Prefecture. However, this rule had been abandoned or, at least, relaxed during the reign of Severus Alexander and in the next fifty or so years until the reforms of Diocletian
gave the office senatorial status a number of prefects are recorded with the senatorial honorific Clarissimus Vir - i.e. 'Renowned Lord'. There therefore seems to have been no procedural obstacle to Volusianus's continuing to serve as prefect after he was ennobled if Gallienus had wanted this..
In order to allow Volusianus to serve as Consul he would almost certainly had to have been ennobled whether or not he remained Praetorian Prefect and would thus have had the honorific Clarissimus Vir However, this is not recorded on the Arretium inscription. Whether this was a deliberate or an accidental oversight is now unknowable.
was to prove him very wrong. However, the bloody massacre of the Imperial family members and its adherents at the instance of a large senatorial faction in the wake of Gallienus's murder by his army commanders proved that he had been right to fear enmity from this quarter.
In any case Volusianus was given the Urban Prefecture and it is likely that he remained in Rome when Gallienus went to the Balkans to deal with the invasion of the Goths
and Heruls in 268. There is no record of Volusianus taking part in that campaign. Moreover, if he had been in any way associated with the conspiracy that finally brought about the demise of the Emperor our sources would surely have mentioned it. On the contrary, as an Etruscan, Volusianus would have had no interest whatsoever in underwriting the murder of his patron, fellow-countryman and, possibly, blood-relative to bring about the Illyrian takeover of the empire.
who was the prime beneficiary of the murder of Gallienus, would not have been unhappy to see so loyal and formidable a ‘Gallienista’ removed without himself incurring the odium of ordering it personally. However, it has to be acknowledged that there is absolutely no reference in the ancient sources to support this speculation.
finally achieving the consulship. It is not known whether he ever governed a province. .
Augustus
Augustus ;23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) is considered the first emperor of the Roman Empire, which he ruled alone from 27 BC until his death in 14 AD.The dates of his rule are contemporary dates; Augustus lived under two calendars, the Roman Republican until 45 BC, and the Julian...
to that of Diocletian
Diocletian
Diocletian |latinized]] upon his accession to Diocletian . c. 22 December 244 – 3 December 311), was a Roman Emperor from 284 to 305....
- most officials of the highest rank served in both capacities at different times in their careers). Although Volusianus may have begun his career under the aegis of Valerian
Valerian (emperor)
Valerian , also known as Valerian the Elder, was Roman Emperor from 253 to 260. He was taken captive by Persian king Shapur I after the Battle of Edessa, becoming the only Roman Emperor who was captured as a prisoner of war, resulting in wide-ranging instability across the Empire.-Origins and rise...
(or even earlier) he rose to prominence in the reign of Gallienus
Gallienus
Gallienus was Roman Emperor with his father Valerian from 253 to 260, and alone from 260 to 268. He took control of the Empire at a time when it was undergoing great crisis...
and was obviously one of that Emperor’s most trusted (and trustworthy) aides at a time when the Licinnian dynasty was in urgent need of such support.
It may not be without significance that Volusianus seems to have been an Etruscan or, at least, had strong connections with that region of Italy like the Emperors Valerian and Gallienus who advanced his career. He may even have been related to the Imperial family. At a time when Illyrian and other officers of Balkans origin were so prominent in the military leadership of the Imperial forces - or at least those units available to Gallienus as defender of the European provinces - yet their loyalty to the regime was so problematical it is easy to believe that that Volusianus' origin was a factor in his extraordinary advance to the highest offices.
It is a pity that the paucity of our records of this era renders any attempt to assess the political and military significance of his career purely speculative. Nevertheless his career illustrates yet again the opportunities for advancement enjoyed by young soldiers of relatively humble backgrounds during the troubled reign of Gallienus.
Sources
Almost all of what we know of Volusianus is derived from an inscription dedicated to him by the Town Council OrdoOrdo
Ordo may refer to:* A musical phrase constructed from one or more statements of a rhythmic mode pattern and ending in a rest* Ordo , is a nomadic palace for the Mongol aristocrats and the Turkic rulers...
of the municipium
Municipium
Municipium , the prototype of English municipality, was the Latin term for a town or city. Etymologically the municipium was a social contract between municipes, the "duty holders," or citizens of the town. The duties, or munera, were a communal obligation assumed by the municipes in exchange for...
of Arretium (Arezzo
Arezzo
Arezzo is a city and comune in Central Italy, capital of the province of the same name, located in Tuscany. Arezzo is about 80 km southeast of Florence, at an elevation of 296 m above sea level. In 2011 the population was about 100,000....
) of which he was a patron. The inscription is helpfully interpreted by Jones et al.. in their prospography and also by Bray. As a Consul
Consul
Consul was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Empire. The title was also used in other city states and also revived in modern states, notably in the First French Republic...
and Urban Prefect he is mentioned in the Fasti Romani, i.e. the record of Roman office-holders.
Origins
Volusianus was the son of a Roman citizen also with the praenomenPraenomen
The praenomen was a personal name chosen by the parents of a Roman child. It was first bestowed on the dies lustricus , the eighth day after the birth of a girl, or the ninth day after the birth of a boy...
'Lucius' of the Petronii clan. His Roman Voting Tribe
Tribe
A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally, consists of a social group existing before the development of, or outside of, states.Many anthropologists use the term tribal society to refer to societies organized largely on the basis of kinship, especially corporate descent groups .Some theorists...
was the Sabatinae. Sabatina was a district in Etruria
Etruria
Etruria—usually referred to in Greek and Latin source texts as Tyrrhenia—was a region of Central Italy, an area that covered part of what now are Tuscany, Latium, Emilia-Romagna, and Umbria. A particularly noteworthy work dealing with Etruscan locations is D. H...
and it is likely that the family was of Etruscan origin. Volusianus’s patronage of Arezzo in later life (see above) does not necessarily mean that he was born there, but it does indicate some strong regional connection. It is possible that the clan Petronii Volusianii was related to the Licinii dynasty, also of Etruscan provenance, of which Valerian
Valerian (emperor)
Valerian , also known as Valerian the Elder, was Roman Emperor from 253 to 260. He was taken captive by Persian king Shapur I after the Battle of Edessa, becoming the only Roman Emperor who was captured as a prisoner of war, resulting in wide-ranging instability across the Empire.-Origins and rise...
and Gallienus
Gallienus
Gallienus was Roman Emperor with his father Valerian from 253 to 260, and alone from 260 to 268. He took control of the Empire at a time when it was undergoing great crisis...
were the most distinguished members. His Etruscan origins and relationship to the Imperial family could in part explain the rapidity of Volusianus’s rise in the 250-60s.
When his recorded career began he was already of equestrian rank – see below - but we do not know if he was born into that level of society or achieved it as a result of his career. He would probably have become a senator when he was appointed Consul in 261 - see below.
Volusianus's name 'Taurus' – i.e. ‘Bull’ - may be an agnomen
Agnomen
An agnomen , in the Roman naming convention, was a nickname, just as the cognomen was initially. However, the cognomina eventually became family names, so agnomina were needed to distinguish between similarly named persons...
or nickname conferred on him because he had a massive physique. The careers of such third century soldiers as the Thracian Maximinus I and the Moesian Claudius II
Claudius II
Claudius II , commonly known as Claudius Gothicus, was Roman Emperor from 268 to 270. During his reign he fought successfully against the Alamanni and scored a crushing victory against the Goths at the Battle of Naissus. He died after succumbing to a smallpox plague that ravaged the provinces of...
who rose from lowly origins to Imperial status suggests that unusual physical prowess was a positive advantage in securing advancement in the army at this time. However, this suggestion is purely conjectural. We do not know enough about Volusianus to determine whether 'Taurus' was a true nickname specific to him alone in his family or whether it was an hereditary cognomen
Cognomen
The cognomen nōmen "name") was the third name of a citizen of Ancient Rome, under Roman naming conventions. The cognomen started as a nickname, but lost that purpose when it became hereditary. Hereditary cognomina were used to augment the second name in order to identify a particular branch within...
conferred at birth whether or not justified by any personal attribute.
Career
The Arretium Inscription lists Volusianus’s appointments in reverse chronological order according to the usual Roman practice. In chronological order they are:- LAVRENS LAVINAS – This signifies the holding of a minor priesthood. The holders had to be of equestrian status;
- EX V DECVRIIS – Signifies membership of one of the equestrian panels of five judges available to decide issues of fact;
- EQVO PVBLICO – Indicates that he had taken part in the annual parade of the equestrian order in Rome;
- CENTVRIO DEPVTATVS – One of the commanders of the troops detached from the provincial armies for special service about the Emperor. When the Emperors were in Rome these were quartered at the Castra Peregrina Peregrina on the Caelian Hill
Caelian Hill
The Caelian Hill is one of the famous Seven Hills of Rome. Under reign of Tullus Hostilius, the entire population of Alba Longa was forcibly resettled on the Caelian Hill...
. If his family was of equestrian origin Volusianus is likely to have enlisted in the army at the rank of centurion
Centurion
A centurion was a professional officer of the Roman army .Centurion may also refer to:-Military:* Centurion tank, British battle tank* HMS Centurion, name of several ships and a shore base of the British Royal Navy...
or, perhaps, optio ad spem ordinis (centurion’s adjutant awaiting a promotion) thus obviating long years of service in the ranks;
- PRIMVS PILVS (see Pilus) LEGIONIS XXX VLPIAE – Senior ranking centurion of this legion which was normally stationed at Castra Vetera Xanten
Xanten
Xanten is a historic town in the North Rhine-Westphalia state of Germany, located in the district of Wesel.Xanten is known for the Archaeological Park or archaeological open air museum , its medieval picturesque city centre with Xanten Cathedral and many museums, its large man-made lake for...
in Germania Inferior
Germania Inferior
Germania Inferior was a Roman province located on the left bank of the Rhine, in today's Luxembourg, southern Netherlands, parts of Belgium, and North Rhine-Westphalia left of the Rhine....
. It is likely that he held this appointment when Gallienus was campaigning against the Franks
Franks
The Franks were a confederation of Germanic tribes first attested in the third century AD as living north and east of the Lower Rhine River. From the third to fifth centuries some Franks raided Roman territory while other Franks joined the Roman troops in Gaul. Only the Salian Franks formed a...
early in his reign. However, he is likely first to have come to Gallienus’s attention when he was Centurio Deputatus – unless, of course, he already had some family/Etruscan regional connection to the Imperial family (see above);
- PRAEPOSITVS EQVITVM SINGVLIARORVM AVGG NN - Commander of a troop of 'household' cavalry serving directly under the Emperor. The form Augg NN (i.e. Augusti Nostri– i.e. 'of Our (Lords) the Augustuses)’ indicates that there were two Emperors when Volusianus held this office – i.e. Valerian
Valerian (emperor)
Valerian , also known as Valerian the Elder, was Roman Emperor from 253 to 260. He was taken captive by Persian king Shapur I after the Battle of Edessa, becoming the only Roman Emperor who was captured as a prisoner of war, resulting in wide-ranging instability across the Empire.-Origins and rise...
and Gallienus
Gallienus
Gallienus was Roman Emperor with his father Valerian from 253 to 260, and alone from 260 to 268. He took control of the Empire at a time when it was undergoing great crisis...
. This appointment would have been made by Gallienus directly – perhaps with the final approval of Valerian;
- LEGIONIS X ET XIII GEMINAE PROVINCIAE PANNONIAE ITIM (ITEM?) LEGIONIS DACIAE – Indicates that he was commander (dux) of a legionary detachment made up of units from 2 twinned legions, X which had its main base at Vindobana in Upper Pannonia
Pannonia
Pannonia was an ancient province of the Roman Empire bounded north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, and southward with Dalmatia and upper Moesia....
(modern Vienna
Vienna
Vienna is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's primary city, with a population of about 1.723 million , and is by far the largest city in Austria, as well as its cultural, economic, and political centre...
, Austria
Austria
Austria , officially the Republic of Austria , is a landlocked country of roughly 8.4 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the...
)and XIII from Apulum
Apulum
Apulum may refer to:*The Latin name of Alba Iulia.*Apulum , the Roman fort of Alba Iulia.*Apulum , a Romanian porcelain manufacturing company....
, Dacia
Dacia
In ancient geography, especially in Roman sources, Dacia was the land inhabited by the Dacians or Getae as they were known by the Greeks—the branch of the Thracians north of the Haemus range...
(modern Alba Julia, Romania
Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea...
). This detachment is likely to have been part of Gallienus's Imperial Field Army Comitatus
Comitatenses
Comitatenses is the Latin plural of comitatensis, originally the adjective derived from comitatus , itself rooting in Comes .However, historically it became the accepted name for...
and have been quartered in districts near the Imperial HQ. (The willingness of Gallienus to reduce the forces available for frontier defence in Dacia and Pannonia in order to supplement the forces under his direct command does much to explain the resentment felt against him by the garrisons of those provinces and their willingness to support Ingenuus
Ingenuus
Ingenuus was a Roman military commander, the imperial legate in Pannonia, who became a usurper to the throne of the emperor Gallienus when he led a brief and unsuccessful revolt in the year 260. Appointed by Gallienus himself, Ingenuus served him well by repulsing a Sarmatian invasion and securing...
, Regalianus
Regalianus
P. C Regalianus was a Dacian general who turned against the Roman Empire and became himself emperor for a brief period, being murdered by the hands who raised him to power.-Career:...
and Macrianus
Macrianus
Macrianus is a Roman personal name:* Macrianus Major, Roman usurper* Macrianus Minor, son of Macrianus Major* Macrianus, 4th century CE Alamannic king...
;
- TRIBVNVS COHORTIS III VIGILUM; XI VRBANAE; III PRAETORIAE – Indicates he was successively commander of cohorts of the Vigiles
Vigiles
The Vigiles or more properly the Vigiles Urbani or Cohortes Vigilum were the firefighters and police of Ancient Rome.-History:...
(Roman Watch) (255?), the Urban cohorts(256?), and the Praetorian Guard
Praetorian Guard
The Praetorian Guard was a force of bodyguards used by Roman Emperors. The title was already used during the Roman Republic for the guards of Roman generals, at least since the rise to prominence of the Scipio family around 275 BC...
(257?). He may have been posted to Rome to serve his time in the Watch and the Urban Cohorts, but given that Gallienus was very active in Germany and the Balkans in these years and that Volusianus was obviously one of his most trusted commanders it is quite possible that his command of these units was only titular and that his duties in Rome were carried out by deputies while Volusianus himself continued to serve 'In the Imperial Presence'. See also discussion below regarding his later appointment as Prefect of the City Watch. An alternative explanation is the exigencies of defending the northern frontiers had encouraged Gallienus to cut the garrison of Rome to the bone and that these units were serving with the Imperial field army at this time, possibly as a composite force.
It is likely in any case that Cohort III, Praetorian Guard, was a part of Gallienus’s Imperial Field Army or Comitatus
Comitatenses
Comitatenses is the Latin plural of comitatensis, originally the adjective derived from comitatus , itself rooting in Comes .However, historically it became the accepted name for...
in the late 250s;
- TRIBVNVS COHORTIS I PRAETORIAE PROTECTOR AVGG NN – This appointment is placed by Jones in 259 - the Augg NN format indicates that it was still in the joint reign of Valerian and Galllienus. The cohort was almost certainly a part of the Imperial Field Army. This is the first known reference to the new order of Protectores Augusti Nostri
Protectores Augusti Nostri
Protector Augusti Nostri was a title given to individual officers of the Roman Army. The term first appears in the joint-reign of Valerian and Gallienus. The term Protector Divini Lateris also appears around this time. L...
(Defenders of Our August Lords);
- PRAEFECTVS VIGILVM PERFECTISSIMVS VIR – Volusianus is now Prefect of the Watch (probably 259). Again he could well have remained with Gallienus's military entourage peripatetic on the northern frontiers while a deputy carried out his duties in Rome. This was the year of a major invasion of Italy by the Alamanni
Alamanni
The Alamanni, Allemanni, or Alemanni were originally an alliance of Germanic tribes located around the upper Rhine river . One of the earliest references to them is the cognomen Alamannicus assumed by Roman Emperor Caracalla, who ruled the Roman Empire from 211 to 217 and claimed thereby to be...
/Juthingi (and possibly the Marcomanni
Marcomanni
The Marcomanni were a Germanic tribe, probably related to the Buri, Suebi or Suevi.-Origin:Scholars believe their name derives possibly from Proto-Germanic forms of "march" and "men"....
as well) and it seems remarkable that Gallienus should have sent one of his most favoured commanders to Rome when his Comitatus was so heavily engaged However, whether or not this applied in the case of Volusianus is, at least, questionable. As will be noted below, despite his rapid rise through the military hierarchy, there is reason to suspect that he was not a particularly effective commander and Gallienus may have thought that he would be more usefully employed steadying morale in Rome than in hunting down the Alaman intruders in the field. Perfectissimus Vir was an honorific reserved for equestrian office-holders of the second grade;
- PRAEFECTVUS PRAETORIO EMINENTISSIVS VIR – About 260(?). Praetorian Prefect
Praetorian prefect
Praetorian prefect was the title of a high office in the Roman Empire. Originating as the commander of the Praetorian Guard, the office gradually acquired extensive legal and administrative functions, with its holders becoming the Emperor's chief aides...
was the highest office in the Empire below the Emperor himself. It had both military and civil responsibilities. The office was usually served ‘in the Imperial Presence’. Eminentissimus Vir (lit 'Most Eminent Man') was the highest equestrian honorific – perhaps equivalent to ‘His Excellency’. It is not known who Volusianus succeeded in this office. However, most authorities seem agreed that his predecessor was Silvanus
Silvanus
- People :*Marcus Plautius Silvanus , Roman consul in 2 BC*Tiberius Plautius Silvanus Aelianus, a Roman patrician serving twice as consul *Marcus Caeionius Silvanus - People :*Marcus Plautius Silvanus (1st-century BC–1st-century AD), Roman consul in 2 BC*Tiberius Plautius Silvanus Aelianus, a Roman...
(or Albanus).
If, as seems likely, Volusianus was an Etruscan and an associate of the Imperial dynasty - see above - his appointment as Praetorian Prefect at this time could have had great political significance. Gallienus certainly needed somebody who could act as a counterweight to the Illyrian cadres who seem to have dominated the officer corps of the comitatus and the Danube garrisons alike and whose loyalty to the regime was so manifestly febrile. The rebellion of Ingenuus
Ingenuus
Ingenuus was a Roman military commander, the imperial legate in Pannonia, who became a usurper to the throne of the emperor Gallienus when he led a brief and unsuccessful revolt in the year 260. Appointed by Gallienus himself, Ingenuus served him well by repulsing a Sarmatian invasion and securing...
was still a recent memory in 260 when Volusianus was made Praetorian Prefect; in that very year a significant proportion of the Pannonian garrison was to declare for Regalianus
Regalianus
P. C Regalianus was a Dacian general who turned against the Roman Empire and became himself emperor for a brief period, being murdered by the hands who raised him to power.-Career:...
; and in the following year Macrianus
Macrianus
Macrianus is a Roman personal name:* Macrianus Major, Roman usurper* Macrianus Minor, son of Macrianus Major* Macrianus, 4th century CE Alamannic king...
's bid for the Empire also found significant support among the troops in the Illyrian provinces.
Given this situation it is particularly frustrating that our records have nothing to say of Volusianus' activities in his key office. He is not recorded as being involved in the campaigns that the Gallienus regime was forced to wage against the Illyrian usurpers and Postumus
Postumus
Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus was a Roman emperor of Batavian origin. He usurped power from Gallienus in 260 and formed the so-called Gallic Empire...
when Aureolus
Aureolus
For the Frankish ruler of Aragon, see Aureolus of Aragon.Manius Acilius Aureolus was a Roman military commander and would-be usurper. He was one of the so-called Thirty Tyrants who populated the reign of the Emperor Gallienus...
seems to have been the Emperor's right-hand man. It is possible that Volusianus owed his glittering career more to his closeness to Gallienus than to any particular military genius. Gallienus's appointments seem always to have had soem basis in merit, but Volusianus could well have been an effective military administrator without being an outstanding soldier in an age of outstanding soldiers. There is no way of knowing;
- VIR CONSULARIS – According to the fasti Volusianus was consul ordinarius with Gallienus in 261. The alternative interpretations to be put on this appointment must influence the assessment of Volusianus as a military man and as a close companion comes of the Emperor.
Significance of his consular appointment
Bray conjectures that Volusianus remained Praetorian Praefect despite being appointed Consul. This is possible: the office of consul was by this time largely ceremonial though hugely prestigious and still a pre-requisite of important provincial governorships.Traditionally it was certainly the case that men of senatorial rank could not be appointed to the Praetorian Prefecture. However, this rule had been abandoned or, at least, relaxed during the reign of Severus Alexander and in the next fifty or so years until the reforms of Diocletian
Diocletian
Diocletian |latinized]] upon his accession to Diocletian . c. 22 December 244 – 3 December 311), was a Roman Emperor from 284 to 305....
gave the office senatorial status a number of prefects are recorded with the senatorial honorific Clarissimus Vir - i.e. 'Renowned Lord'. There therefore seems to have been no procedural obstacle to Volusianus's continuing to serve as prefect after he was ennobled if Gallienus had wanted this..
In order to allow Volusianus to serve as Consul he would almost certainly had to have been ennobled whether or not he remained Praetorian Prefect and would thus have had the honorific Clarissimus Vir However, this is not recorded on the Arretium inscription. Whether this was a deliberate or an accidental oversight is now unknowable.
Later life
In 267 Gallienus appointed Volusianus Praefectus Urbis - i.e. Governor of the City of Rome. This was a hugely important and prestigious post and probably ranked first in the hierarchy of the Imperial service - although the Praetorian Prefect probably exercised more raw power and authority in the Imperial System as a whole. It was always confined to men of senatorial status. By 267 the Empire had enjoyed a few years of comparative peace and the Emperor may have considered that the chief threat to his regime lay in the hostility of a substantial element of the Roman Senate rather than in an attempted putsch by the commander of a provincial garrison or a major barbarian incursion. if this was, indeed, his reasoning the Gothic invasion in the following year and the rebellion of AureolusAureolus
For the Frankish ruler of Aragon, see Aureolus of Aragon.Manius Acilius Aureolus was a Roman military commander and would-be usurper. He was one of the so-called Thirty Tyrants who populated the reign of the Emperor Gallienus...
was to prove him very wrong. However, the bloody massacre of the Imperial family members and its adherents at the instance of a large senatorial faction in the wake of Gallienus's murder by his army commanders proved that he had been right to fear enmity from this quarter.
In any case Volusianus was given the Urban Prefecture and it is likely that he remained in Rome when Gallienus went to the Balkans to deal with the invasion of the Goths
Goths
The Goths were an East Germanic tribe of Scandinavian origin whose two branches, the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths, played an important role in the fall of the Roman Empire and the emergence of Medieval Europe....
and Heruls in 268. There is no record of Volusianus taking part in that campaign. Moreover, if he had been in any way associated with the conspiracy that finally brought about the demise of the Emperor our sources would surely have mentioned it. On the contrary, as an Etruscan, Volusianus would have had no interest whatsoever in underwriting the murder of his patron, fellow-countryman and, possibly, blood-relative to bring about the Illyrian takeover of the empire.
Death
It is normally assumed that Volusianus was done to death in the senatorial purge that followed the murder of Gallienus in 268 already referred to. Although he was not an Illyrian and, therefore, almost certainly not of the clique of generals born in the Balkans that removed Gallienus it is likely that he was highly regarded in the lower ranks of the Imperial Field Army in which he had served with such distinction and, as such, he could have been a focus for its discontent at the murder of the Emperor. It is permissible to speculate that Claudius IIClaudius II
Claudius II , commonly known as Claudius Gothicus, was Roman Emperor from 268 to 270. During his reign he fought successfully against the Alamanni and scored a crushing victory against the Goths at the Battle of Naissus. He died after succumbing to a smallpox plague that ravaged the provinces of...
who was the prime beneficiary of the murder of Gallienus, would not have been unhappy to see so loyal and formidable a ‘Gallienista’ removed without himself incurring the odium of ordering it personally. However, it has to be acknowledged that there is absolutely no reference in the ancient sources to support this speculation.
Heir
Authoritative sources consider that Volusianus was the father of Lucius Publius Petronius Volusianus. This man is little known, but he seems to have had who had a distinguished career in a wholly civilian capacity - as a senator he would have been precluded from following his father into the army. He seems to have followed the senatorial cursus honorumCursus honorum
The cursus honorum was the sequential order of public offices held by aspiring politicians in both the Roman Republic and the early Empire. It was designed for men of senatorial rank. The cursus honorum comprised a mixture of military and political administration posts. Each office had a minimum...
finally achieving the consulship. It is not known whether he ever governed a province. .