Postumus
Encyclopedia
Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus was a Roman emperor of Batavian
origin. He usurped power from Gallienus
in 260 and formed the so-called Gallic Empire
. He was recognised in Gaul, Germania, Britannia and Iberia until his murder in 269.
of Lower Germany
.
By 259, Valerian was campaigning in the east against the Persians, while his son and co-emperor Gallienus
was distracted with the situation on the Danubian frontier
. Consequently Gallienus left his son, Saloninus
, and military commanders, including Postumus, to protect the Rhine. Amid the chaos of an invasion by the Alamanni
and Franks
, and spurred on by news of the defeat and capture of Valerian, the army in Gaul
revolted and proclaimed Postumus emperor.
The trigger was their defeat in 260 of a Juthungi
army which was returning from Italy laden with prisoners, even though they had been repulsed by Gallienus at Mediolanum
. Under the command of Postumus and Marcus Simplicinius Genialis, the Roman army crushed the Juthungi, and Postumus proceeded to distribute the captured spoils to the legions he commanded. Saloninus, on the advice of his praetorian prefect
Silvanus
(who had coordinated Roman policy in Gaul alongside Postumus), demanded the transfer of the recovered booty to his residence at Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium
. Infuriated by this command, the troops proclaimed Postumus emperor and proceeded to besiege and attack Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium, trapping Saloninus and Silvanus. After breaching the walls of the city, Postumus had Silvanus and Saloninus killed, although his supporters later claimed that it was the native Gauls who were responsible for the murders. Later he erected a triumphal arch to celebrate his victory.
Postumus was immediately recognized as emperor in Gaul
(except for Narbonensis), the two Germania
s, and Raetia
. By 261, Britannia
and Hispania
had also acknowledged him as emperor. He established his capital at Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium
and then proceeded to set up as much of the traditional Roman legislative and executive structures as he could. Apart from the position of emperor
, he immediately assumed the office of consul
alongside a colleague, Honoratianus. As per his imperial predecessors, he became the pontifex maximus
of the state and assumed tribunician
power each year. He established a senate
and a praetorian guard
. Reflecting his power base, the chief members of Postumus’ administration appeared to have been of northern Gallic origin, and indeed, the entire administration soon became rapidly Gallicized. Both Victorinus
and Tetricus I
, important members of the government, hailed from this region.
Postumus represented himself as the restorer of Gaul (Restitutor Galliarum) and the bringer of security to the provinces (Salus Provinciarum) on some of his coins; prior to 10 December, 261, he also took the title of Germanicus maximus, a title he earned after successfully defending Gaul against the Germans. His principal objective in assuming the purple appeared to be the restoration and defence of the Rhine frontier and the surrounding area, a task that he approached with vigour, earning the admiration of the ancient authors, who declared that he restored the security that the provinces had enjoyed in the past. So successful was he in the task of restoring peace and security to the provinces under his direct control that the coins issued by Postumus were of better workmanship and higher precious metal content than coins issued by Gallienus. After having spent four years pushing the Franks
out of Gaul, Postumus then recruited Frankish troops to fight against other Franks, probably dispersed within existing Roman army units.
There is still considerable debate as to what Postumus’ ultimate aims were, whether he ever intended to usurp Gallienus or whether he was content to rule the western provinces. Right from the beginning of his usurpation, Postumus had made it clear that he had no intentions to make a bid for Rome, that his priority was for Gaul. Postumus' powerbase was Gaul and his main responsibility was the defense of the Rhine provinces. If he marched against Gallienus, then he would be exposing his heartland not only to the Germanic tribes but also potentially to any number of usurpers. Perhaps he hoped to achieve some official recognition from Gallienus; what is clear however, is that Postumus had no intention of creating a separate “Galliarum imperium”.
For four years Gallienus had been too distracted by Germanic invasions and other usurpers in the east to turn his attention to the situation to his north and west. This changed in 265 when Gallienus launched a campaign to defeat Postumus. After some initial success against Postumus, his first attempt failed when Postumus managed to escape from a precarious situation due to the carelessness of Gallienus' cavalry commander Aureolus
, leading to Aureolus’demotion and eventual abandonment of Gallienus in 267. A second campaign, led by Gallienus himself, also seemed to have the advantage over Postumus, but while Gallienus was besieging a city in Gaul (probably Augusta Treverorum
), he was wounded and forced to withdraw. After his failed attempt at defeating Postumus, Gallienus was occupied with crises in the rest of his empire and did not have any further opportunities to challenge Postumus again. Gallienus nevertheless did manage to wrest control of Raetia from Postumus during these years.
By the end of 265, Postumus' coins were proudly announcing his victory over Gallienus, and the festivities celebrating his quinquennalia continued into the following year. Very little troubled the reign of Postumus throughout 267, but a sudden deterioration in the coinage in 268 shows that Postumus was facing increasing difficulties, resulting in the need to buy off an increasingly discontented army.
Nevertheless, Postumus was given a golden opportunity in 268 to move against Gallienus when Aureolus, Gallienus’general who was in command of Mediolanum
, openly changed sides and allied himself with Postumus. The city of Mediolanum would have been critical to Postumus if he planned to march on Rome. For whatever reason, Postumus failed to support Aureolus, who was besieged by Gallienus. Before the end of the northern summer in 268, the events at Mediolanum were to see the assassination of Gallienus, the defeat of Aureolus, and the accession of Claudius II. It also triggered a sequence of events that would see the end of Postumus’ rule in Gaul.
Postumus began his fifth consulship on 1 January, 269, but the army, unhappy with Postumus’ decision not to march on Rome in support of Aureolus, raised a usurper in early 269. Laelianus
, one of Postumus' top military leaders and the governor of Germania Superior
, was declared emperor in Mogontiacum
by the local garrison and surrounding troops (Legio XXII Primigenia
). Although Postumus was able to quickly capture Mogontiacum and kill Laelianus, he was unable to control his own troops and they turned on him and killed him, since they were dissatisfied with him for not allowing them to sack the city of Mogontiacum.
Following the death of Postumus, his empire lost control of Britain and Spain, and the shrunken remains of the Gallic Empire
were inherited by Marcus Aurelius Marius
.
Postumus is listed among the Thirty Tyrants
in the Historia Augusta. Traditionally, it had been held that his reign began in 259; however, modern scholarship tends to support the belief that the summer or fall of 260 is the more likely date that he was hailed emperor.
Batavians
The Batavi were an ancient Germanic tribe, originally part of the Chatti, reported by Tacitus to have lived around the Rhine delta, in the area that is currently the Netherlands, "an uninhabited district on the extremity of the coast of Gaul, and also of a neighbouring island, surrounded by the...
origin. He usurped power from Gallienus
Gallienus
Gallienus was Roman Emperor with his father Valerian from 253 to 260, and alone from 260 to 268. He took control of the Empire at a time when it was undergoing great crisis...
in 260 and formed the so-called Gallic Empire
Gallic Empire
The Gallic Empire is the modern name for a breakaway realm that existed from 260 to 274. It originated during the Roman Empire's Crisis of the Third Century....
. He was recognised in Gaul, Germania, Britannia and Iberia until his murder in 269.
Rise to power
Little is known about the early life of Postumus, but it is believed that he was a Batavian of humble origins who rose through the ranks of the army, and eventually promoted by the emperor Valerian to the position of imperial legateLegatus Augusti pro praetore
A legatus Augusti pro praetore was the official title of the governor of some imperial provinces of the Roman Empire during the Principate era, normally the larger ones or those where legions were based...
of Lower Germany
Germania Inferior
Germania Inferior was a Roman province located on the left bank of the Rhine, in today's Luxembourg, southern Netherlands, parts of Belgium, and North Rhine-Westphalia left of the Rhine....
.
By 259, Valerian was campaigning in the east against the Persians, while his son and co-emperor Gallienus
Gallienus
Gallienus was Roman Emperor with his father Valerian from 253 to 260, and alone from 260 to 268. He took control of the Empire at a time when it was undergoing great crisis...
was distracted with the situation on the Danubian frontier
Danube
The Danube is a river in the Central Europe and the Europe's second longest river after the Volga. It is classified as an international waterway....
. Consequently Gallienus left his son, Saloninus
Saloninus
Publius Licinius Cornelius Saloninus Valerianus was Roman Emperor in 259 or 260.-Early life:Saloninus was born around the year 242. His father was the later emperor Gallienus, his mother Cornelia Salonina, a Greek from Bithynia...
, and military commanders, including Postumus, to protect the Rhine. Amid the chaos of an invasion by the Alamanni
Alamanni
The Alamanni, Allemanni, or Alemanni were originally an alliance of Germanic tribes located around the upper Rhine river . One of the earliest references to them is the cognomen Alamannicus assumed by Roman Emperor Caracalla, who ruled the Roman Empire from 211 to 217 and claimed thereby to be...
and Franks
Franks
The Franks were a confederation of Germanic tribes first attested in the third century AD as living north and east of the Lower Rhine River. From the third to fifth centuries some Franks raided Roman territory while other Franks joined the Roman troops in Gaul. Only the Salian Franks formed a...
, and spurred on by news of the defeat and capture of Valerian, the army in Gaul
Gaul
Gaul was a region of Western Europe during the Iron Age and Roman era, encompassing present day France, Luxembourg and Belgium, most of Switzerland, the western part of Northern Italy, as well as the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the left bank of the Rhine. The Gauls were the speakers of...
revolted and proclaimed Postumus emperor.
The trigger was their defeat in 260 of a Juthungi
Juthungi
The Juthungi were a Germanic tribe in the region north of the rivers Danube and Altmühl in the modern German state of Bavaria....
army which was returning from Italy laden with prisoners, even though they had been repulsed by Gallienus at Mediolanum
Mediolanum
Mediolanum, the ancient Milan, was an important Celtic and then Roman centre of northern Italy. This article charts the history of the city from its settlement by the Insubres around 600 BC, through its conquest by the Romans and its development into a key centre of Western Christianity and capital...
. Under the command of Postumus and Marcus Simplicinius Genialis, the Roman army crushed the Juthungi, and Postumus proceeded to distribute the captured spoils to the legions he commanded. Saloninus, on the advice of his praetorian prefect
Praetorian prefect
Praetorian prefect was the title of a high office in the Roman Empire. Originating as the commander of the Praetorian Guard, the office gradually acquired extensive legal and administrative functions, with its holders becoming the Emperor's chief aides...
Silvanus
Silvanus (praetorian prefect)
Silvanus or Albanus was a Roman officer of the Third Century AD who came briefly to the notice of history in the reign of Valerian and his co-Emperor Gallienus...
(who had coordinated Roman policy in Gaul alongside Postumus), demanded the transfer of the recovered booty to his residence at Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium
Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium
Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium was the name of the Roman colony in the Rhineland out of which the German city of Cologne developed.It was the capital of the Roman province of Germania Inferior and the headquarters of the military in the region. With the administrative reforms under Diocletian,...
. Infuriated by this command, the troops proclaimed Postumus emperor and proceeded to besiege and attack Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium, trapping Saloninus and Silvanus. After breaching the walls of the city, Postumus had Silvanus and Saloninus killed, although his supporters later claimed that it was the native Gauls who were responsible for the murders. Later he erected a triumphal arch to celebrate his victory.
Rule
Gaul
Gaul was a region of Western Europe during the Iron Age and Roman era, encompassing present day France, Luxembourg and Belgium, most of Switzerland, the western part of Northern Italy, as well as the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the left bank of the Rhine. The Gauls were the speakers of...
(except for Narbonensis), the two Germania
Germania
Germania was the Greek and Roman geographical term for the geographical regions inhabited by mainly by peoples considered to be Germani. It was most often used to refer especially to the east of the Rhine and north of the Danube...
s, and Raetia
Raetia
Raetia was a province of the Roman Empire, named after the Rhaetian people. It was bounded on the west by the country of the Helvetii, on the east by Noricum, on the north by Vindelicia, on the west by Cisalpine Gaul and on south by Venetia et Histria...
. By 261, Britannia
Britannia
Britannia is an ancient term for Great Britain, and also a female personification of the island. The name is Latin, and derives from the Greek form Prettanike or Brettaniai, which originally designated a collection of islands with individual names, including Albion or Great Britain. However, by the...
and Hispania
Hispania
Another theory holds that the name derives from Ezpanna, the Basque word for "border" or "edge", thus meaning the farthest area or place. Isidore of Sevilla considered Hispania derived from Hispalis....
had also acknowledged him as emperor. He established his capital at Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium
Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium
Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium was the name of the Roman colony in the Rhineland out of which the German city of Cologne developed.It was the capital of the Roman province of Germania Inferior and the headquarters of the military in the region. With the administrative reforms under Diocletian,...
and then proceeded to set up as much of the traditional Roman legislative and executive structures as he could. Apart from the position of emperor
Roman Emperor
The Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period . The Romans had no single term for the office although at any given time, a given title was associated with the emperor...
, he immediately assumed the office of consul
Roman consul
A consul served in the highest elected political office of the Roman Republic.Each year, two consuls were elected together, to serve for a one-year term. Each consul was given veto power over his colleague and the officials would alternate each month...
alongside a colleague, Honoratianus. As per his imperial predecessors, he became the pontifex maximus
Pontifex Maximus
The Pontifex Maximus was the high priest of the College of Pontiffs in ancient Rome. This was the most important position in the ancient Roman religion, open only to patricians until 254 BC, when a plebeian first occupied this post...
of the state and assumed tribunician
Tribune
Tribune was a title shared by elected officials in the Roman Republic. Tribunes had the power to convene the Plebeian Council and to act as its president, which also gave them the right to propose legislation before it. They were sacrosanct, in the sense that any assault on their person was...
power each year. He established a senate
Roman Senate
The Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic, however, it was not an elected body, but one whose members were appointed by the consuls, and later by the censors. After a magistrate served his term in office, it usually was followed with automatic...
and a praetorian guard
Praetorian Guard
The Praetorian Guard was a force of bodyguards used by Roman Emperors. The title was already used during the Roman Republic for the guards of Roman generals, at least since the rise to prominence of the Scipio family around 275 BC...
. Reflecting his power base, the chief members of Postumus’ administration appeared to have been of northern Gallic origin, and indeed, the entire administration soon became rapidly Gallicized. Both Victorinus
Victorinus
Marcus Piavonius Victorinus was emperor of the secessionist Gallic Empire from 269 to 271, following the brief reign of Marius. He was murdered by a jealous husband whose wife he tried to seduce.-Reign:...
and Tetricus I
Tetricus I
Gaius Pius Esuvius Tetricus was Emperor of the Gallic Empire from 271 to 274, following the murder of Victorinus. Tetricus, who ruled with his son, Tetricus II, was the last of the Gallic emperors following his surrender to the Roman emperor Aurelian.-Reign:Tetricus was a senator born to a noble...
, important members of the government, hailed from this region.
Postumus represented himself as the restorer of Gaul (Restitutor Galliarum) and the bringer of security to the provinces (Salus Provinciarum) on some of his coins; prior to 10 December, 261, he also took the title of Germanicus maximus, a title he earned after successfully defending Gaul against the Germans. His principal objective in assuming the purple appeared to be the restoration and defence of the Rhine frontier and the surrounding area, a task that he approached with vigour, earning the admiration of the ancient authors, who declared that he restored the security that the provinces had enjoyed in the past. So successful was he in the task of restoring peace and security to the provinces under his direct control that the coins issued by Postumus were of better workmanship and higher precious metal content than coins issued by Gallienus. After having spent four years pushing the Franks
Franks
The Franks were a confederation of Germanic tribes first attested in the third century AD as living north and east of the Lower Rhine River. From the third to fifth centuries some Franks raided Roman territory while other Franks joined the Roman troops in Gaul. Only the Salian Franks formed a...
out of Gaul, Postumus then recruited Frankish troops to fight against other Franks, probably dispersed within existing Roman army units.
There is still considerable debate as to what Postumus’ ultimate aims were, whether he ever intended to usurp Gallienus or whether he was content to rule the western provinces. Right from the beginning of his usurpation, Postumus had made it clear that he had no intentions to make a bid for Rome, that his priority was for Gaul. Postumus' powerbase was Gaul and his main responsibility was the defense of the Rhine provinces. If he marched against Gallienus, then he would be exposing his heartland not only to the Germanic tribes but also potentially to any number of usurpers. Perhaps he hoped to achieve some official recognition from Gallienus; what is clear however, is that Postumus had no intention of creating a separate “Galliarum imperium”.
For four years Gallienus had been too distracted by Germanic invasions and other usurpers in the east to turn his attention to the situation to his north and west. This changed in 265 when Gallienus launched a campaign to defeat Postumus. After some initial success against Postumus, his first attempt failed when Postumus managed to escape from a precarious situation due to the carelessness of Gallienus' cavalry commander Aureolus
Aureolus
For the Frankish ruler of Aragon, see Aureolus of Aragon.Manius Acilius Aureolus was a Roman military commander and would-be usurper. He was one of the so-called Thirty Tyrants who populated the reign of the Emperor Gallienus...
, leading to Aureolus’demotion and eventual abandonment of Gallienus in 267. A second campaign, led by Gallienus himself, also seemed to have the advantage over Postumus, but while Gallienus was besieging a city in Gaul (probably Augusta Treverorum
History of Trier
Trier in Rhineland-Palatinate, whose history dates to the Roman Empire, is often claimed to be the oldest city in Germany. Traditionally it was known in English by its French name of Treves.- Prehistory :...
), he was wounded and forced to withdraw. After his failed attempt at defeating Postumus, Gallienus was occupied with crises in the rest of his empire and did not have any further opportunities to challenge Postumus again. Gallienus nevertheless did manage to wrest control of Raetia from Postumus during these years.
By the end of 265, Postumus' coins were proudly announcing his victory over Gallienus, and the festivities celebrating his quinquennalia continued into the following year. Very little troubled the reign of Postumus throughout 267, but a sudden deterioration in the coinage in 268 shows that Postumus was facing increasing difficulties, resulting in the need to buy off an increasingly discontented army.
Nevertheless, Postumus was given a golden opportunity in 268 to move against Gallienus when Aureolus, Gallienus’general who was in command of Mediolanum
Mediolanum
Mediolanum, the ancient Milan, was an important Celtic and then Roman centre of northern Italy. This article charts the history of the city from its settlement by the Insubres around 600 BC, through its conquest by the Romans and its development into a key centre of Western Christianity and capital...
, openly changed sides and allied himself with Postumus. The city of Mediolanum would have been critical to Postumus if he planned to march on Rome. For whatever reason, Postumus failed to support Aureolus, who was besieged by Gallienus. Before the end of the northern summer in 268, the events at Mediolanum were to see the assassination of Gallienus, the defeat of Aureolus, and the accession of Claudius II. It also triggered a sequence of events that would see the end of Postumus’ rule in Gaul.
Fall
Laelianus
Ulpius Cornelius Laelianus was a usurper against Postumus, the emperor of the Gallic Empire. His revolt lasted from approximately late February to early June 269.-Origins:...
, one of Postumus' top military leaders and the governor of Germania Superior
Germania Superior
Germania Superior , so called for the reason that it lay upstream of Germania Inferior, was a province of the Roman Empire. It comprised an area of western Switzerland, the French Jura and Alsace regions, and southwestern Germany...
, was declared emperor in Mogontiacum
Mainz
Mainz under the Holy Roman Empire, and previously was a Roman fort city which commanded the west bank of the Rhine and formed part of the northernmost frontier of the Roman Empire...
by the local garrison and surrounding troops (Legio XXII Primigenia
Legio XXII Primigenia
Legio XXII Primigenia was a Roman legion levied by Roman Emperor Caligula in 39, for his campaigns in Germania. There are still records of the XXII Primigenia in Mogontiacum from the end of 3rd century...
). Although Postumus was able to quickly capture Mogontiacum and kill Laelianus, he was unable to control his own troops and they turned on him and killed him, since they were dissatisfied with him for not allowing them to sack the city of Mogontiacum.
Following the death of Postumus, his empire lost control of Britain and Spain, and the shrunken remains of the Gallic Empire
Gallic Empire
The Gallic Empire is the modern name for a breakaway realm that existed from 260 to 274. It originated during the Roman Empire's Crisis of the Third Century....
were inherited by Marcus Aurelius Marius
Marcus Aurelius Marius
Marcus Aurelius Marius was emperor of the Gallic Empire in 269 following the assassination of Postumus.-Reign:According to later tradition, he was a blacksmith by trade who rose through the ranks of the Roman army to become an officer. He was present with the army that revolted at Moguntiacum...
.
Postumus is listed among the Thirty Tyrants
Thirty Tyrants (Roman)
The Thirty Tyrants were a series of thirty rulers that appear in the Historia Augusta as having ostensibly been pretenders to the throne of the Roman Empire during the reign of the emperor Gallienus....
in the Historia Augusta. Traditionally, it had been held that his reign began in 259; however, modern scholarship tends to support the belief that the summer or fall of 260 is the more likely date that he was hailed emperor.
Primary Sources
- Aurelius VictorAurelius VictorSextus Aurelius Victor was a historian and politician of the Roman Empire.Aurelius Victor was the author of a History of Rome from Augustus to Julian , published ca. 361. Julian honoured him and appointed him prefect of Pannonia Secunda...
, Epitome de Caesaribus - Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus
- Eutropius, Brevarium, Book 9
- Historia Augusta, Tyranni_XXX*.html The Thirty Tyrants
- Joannes ZonarasJoannes ZonarasIoannes Zonaras was a Byzantine chronicler and theologian, who lived at Constantinople.Under Emperor Alexios I Komnenos he held the offices of head justice and private secretary to the emperor, but after Alexios' death, he retired to the monastery of St Glykeria, where he spent the rest of his...
, Compendium of History extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284 - ZosimusZosimusZosimus was a Byzantine historian, who lived in Constantinople during the reign of the Byzantine Emperor Anastasius I . According to Photius, he was a comes, and held the office of "advocate" of the imperial treasury.- Historia Nova :...
, Historia Nova
Secondary Sources
- Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001
- Potter, David Stone, The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-395, Routledge, 2004
- Jones, A.H.M., Martindale, J.R. The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. I: AD260-395, Cambridge University Press, 1971
- http://www.roman-emperors.org/postumus.htm Polfer, Michel, "Postumus (A.D. 260-269)", De Imperatoribus Romanis] (2000)
External links
- Partial coinage of Postumus