War of the Two Peters
Encyclopedia
The War of the Two Peters was a war fought from 1356 to 1375 between the kingdoms of Castile
and Aragon
. Its name refers to the two rulers of these countries: Peter of Castile and Peter IV of Aragon
, respectively. One historian has written that "all of the centuries-old lessons of border fighting were used as two evenly matched opponents dueled across frontiers that could change hands with lightning speed."
, which was fought between the local and allied forces of the reigning king, Peter of Castile, and his half-brother Henry of Trastámara over the right to the crown.
Peter IV of Aragon supported Henry of Trastámara. Henry was, in turn, supported by the French in the form of Bertrand du Guesclin
and his "free companies" of troops. Peter of Castile was supported by the English
. The War of the Two Peters can thus be considered an extension of the wider Hundred Years' War
as well as the Castilian Civil War
.
The Castilian king's aims were to lay claim to the Kingdom of Valencia
, which included parts of Murcia
, Elche, Alicante
and Orihuela
.
Peter of Aragon wished to dominate the Mediterranean in opposition to Castile and Castile's ally Genoa
. A naval incident between the two powers had already caused tension: Catalan
galleys, armed by Mossèn Francesc de Perellós, who had letters of marque from the Aragonese king, aided France against England, and also managed to capture two Genoese
ships at Sanlúcar de Barrameda
. Genoa was an ally of Castile. Peter of Castile, leading the Castilian fleet, caught up to Perellós at Tavira
, but was unable to capture him.
, which fell to the Castilians.
In 1357, Castile penetrated Aragon and conquered Tarazona
on March 9. On May 8, they arranged a temporary truce.
At the beginning of 1361, the Castilians conquered the fortresses of Verdejo
, Torrijos
, Alhama
, and other places. However, the peace of Terrer (sometimes called the peace of Deza) was negotiated on May 18, 1361, in which all conquered places and castles were returned to their original lords. Bernardo de Cabrera
, ambassador of the Aragonese king, negotiated the peace. Peter IV married his daughter Constance to Frederick III the Simple
.
In June 1362, Peter of Castile met with Charles II of Navarre
at Soria
, in which mutual aid was promised. He also contracted an alliance with Edward III of England
and Edward's son The Black Prince
.
With these negotiations complete, the Castilian king invaded Aragonese territory without officially declaring war, and the conflict commenced again. The Aragonese king was at Perpignan
without troops, and thus caught off guard. The Castilians took the castles of Arize
, Atece, Terrer, Moros, Cetina and Alhama
. Peter of Castile was unable to take Calatayud
, even though he attacked it with all types of siege machines. Without taking his conquests any further, he returned to Seville
.
The next year (1363) Castile continued the war against Aragon, and again occupied Tarazona. Peter of Castile received reinforcements from Portugal
and Navarre
. Meanwhile, the Aragonese king negotiated a treaty with France
and a secret treaty with Henry II of Castile.
Pedro of Castile then conquered Cariñena
, Teruel
, Segorbe
, Morvedre, Almenara, Xiva, and Bunyol.
The papal
nuncio
Jean de la Grange
arranged the peace of Morvedre (Sagunt) (July 2, 1363) between the two kings. However, it was not ratified, and hostilities continued. The Castilians penetrated the Kingdom of Valencia
in 1363, and conquered Alicante
, Caudete
, Elda
, Gandia
, and other places.
In 1366 began the Castilian Civil War
which would see Peter of Castile dethroned. He was assailed by his illegitimate brother Henry of Trastamara at the head of a host of soldiers of fortune, including Bertrand du Guesclin
and Hugh Calveley
, and abandoned the kingdom without daring to give battle, after retreating several times (first from Burgos
, then from Toledo
, and lastly from Seville
) in the face of the oncoming armies. Peter fled, with his treasury, to Portugal, where he was coldly received by his uncle, King Peter I of Portugal
, and thence to Galicia, in northern Spain, where he ordered the murder of Suero, the archbishop of Santiago
, and the dean
, Perálvarez.
Peter of Castile was overthrown in 1369.
saw a lot of low-level ravaging and political instability as Castilian troops and their Moorish allies
invaded this territory. The Castilians unsuccessfully laid siege to Orihuela
in 1364.
s that had passed under Aragonese rule, such as the seignory
of Molina
. A marriage was contracted between Eleanor of Aragon, daughter of Peter IV of Aragon, and John I of Castile
, the successor of Henry II of Castile.
The misery of this war was worsened by the Black Death
and other natural disasters, such as drought
and a plague of locust
s. The war ruined the Aragonese economy, coinciding with a decrease of the country’s population caused by the war and the Black Death. The cathedral of Tarazona was destroyed during the war, and not rebuilt until much later.
However, the war is believed to have led to the establishment of administrative and military forces that would ultimately result in a unified Castile and Aragon in the next century.
Kingdom of Castile
Kingdom of Castile was one of the medieval kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula. It emerged as a political autonomous entity in the 9th century. It was called County of Castile and was held in vassalage from the Kingdom of León. Its name comes from the host of castles constructed in the region...
and Aragon
Crown of Aragon
The Crown of Aragon Corona d'Aragón Corona d'Aragó Corona Aragonum controlling a large portion of the present-day eastern Spain and southeastern France, as well as some of the major islands and mainland possessions stretching across the Mediterranean as far as Greece...
. Its name refers to the two rulers of these countries: Peter of Castile and Peter IV of Aragon
Peter IV of Aragon
Peter IV, , called el Cerimoniós or el del punyalet , was the King of Aragon, King of Sardinia and Corsica , King of Valencia , and Count of Barcelona Peter IV, (Balaguer, September 5, 1319 – Barcelona, January 6, 1387), called el Cerimoniós ("the Ceremonious") or el del punyalet ("the one...
, respectively. One historian has written that "all of the centuries-old lessons of border fighting were used as two evenly matched opponents dueled across frontiers that could change hands with lightning speed."
Background
At the beginning of the fourteenth century, Castile was suffering from unrest caused by its civil warCastilian Civil War
The Castilian Civil War lasted three years from 1366 to 1369. It became part of the larger conflict then raging between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France: the Hundred Years' War...
, which was fought between the local and allied forces of the reigning king, Peter of Castile, and his half-brother Henry of Trastámara over the right to the crown.
Casus belli
Bertrand du Guesclin
Bertrand du Guesclin , known as the Eagle of Brittany or the Black Dog of Brocéliande, was a Breton knight and French military commander during the Hundred Years' War. He was Constable of France from 1370 to his death...
and his "free companies" of troops. Peter of Castile was supported by the English
Kingdom of England
The Kingdom of England was, from 927 to 1707, a sovereign state to the northwest of continental Europe. At its height, the Kingdom of England spanned the southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain and several smaller outlying islands; what today comprises the legal jurisdiction of England...
. The War of the Two Peters can thus be considered an extension of the wider Hundred Years' War
Hundred Years' War
The Hundred Years' War was a series of separate wars waged from 1337 to 1453 by the House of Valois and the House of Plantagenet, also known as the House of Anjou, for the French throne, which had become vacant upon the extinction of the senior Capetian line of French kings...
as well as the Castilian Civil War
Castilian Civil War
The Castilian Civil War lasted three years from 1366 to 1369. It became part of the larger conflict then raging between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France: the Hundred Years' War...
.
The Castilian king's aims were to lay claim to the Kingdom of Valencia
Kingdom of Valencia
The Kingdom of Valencia , located in the eastern shore of the Iberian Peninsula, was one of the component realms of the Crown of Aragon. When the Crown of Aragon merged by dynastic union with the Crown of Castile to form the Kingdom of Spain, the Kingdom of Valencia became a component realm of the...
, which included parts of Murcia
Murcia
-History:It is widely believed that Murcia's name is derived from the Latin words of Myrtea or Murtea, meaning land of Myrtle , although it may also be a derivation of the word Murtia, which would mean Murtius Village...
, Elche, Alicante
Alicante
Alicante or Alacant is a city in Spain, the capital of the province of Alicante and of the comarca of Alacantí, in the south of the Valencian Community. It is also a historic Mediterranean port. The population of the city of Alicante proper was 334,418, estimated , ranking as the second-largest...
and Orihuela
Orihuela
Orihuela is a city and municipality located at the feet of the Sierra de Orihuela mountains in the province of Alicante, Spain. The city of Orihuela had a population of 32,472 inhabitants in the beginning of 2006...
.
Peter of Aragon wished to dominate the Mediterranean in opposition to Castile and Castile's ally Genoa
Republic of Genoa
The Most Serene Republic of Genoa |Ligurian]]: Repúbrica de Zêna) was an independent state from 1005 to 1797 in Liguria on the northwestern Italian coast, as well as Corsica from 1347 to 1768, and numerous other territories throughout the Mediterranean....
. A naval incident between the two powers had already caused tension: Catalan
Catalonia
Catalonia is an autonomous community in northeastern Spain, with the official status of a "nationality" of Spain. Catalonia comprises four provinces: Barcelona, Girona, Lleida, and Tarragona. Its capital and largest city is Barcelona. Catalonia covers an area of 32,114 km² and has an...
galleys, armed by Mossèn Francesc de Perellós, who had letters of marque from the Aragonese king, aided France against England, and also managed to capture two Genoese
Republic of Genoa
The Most Serene Republic of Genoa |Ligurian]]: Repúbrica de Zêna) was an independent state from 1005 to 1797 in Liguria on the northwestern Italian coast, as well as Corsica from 1347 to 1768, and numerous other territories throughout the Mediterranean....
ships at Sanlúcar de Barrameda
Sanlúcar de Barrameda
Sanlúcar de Barrameda is a city in the northwest of Cádiz province, part of the autonomous community of Andalucía in southern Spain. Sanlúcar is located on the left bank at the mouth of the Guadalquivir River opposite the Doñana National Park, 52 km from the provincial capital Cádiz and...
. Genoa was an ally of Castile. Peter of Castile, leading the Castilian fleet, caught up to Perellós at Tavira
Tavira
Tavira is a Portuguese city, situated at 37°07' north, 7°39' west in the east of the Algarve on the south coast of Portugal. It is 30 km east of Faro and 160 km west of Seville in Spain. The Gilão River meets the Atlantic Ocean in Tavira....
, but was unable to capture him.
War 1356-1363
The war lasted from 1356 to 1375. Prolonged because Peter of Castile ended up losing his throne to Henry of Trastámara, the war primarily took place on the border between Castile and Aragon, namely Aragonese border towns such as TeruelTeruel
Teruel is a town in Aragon, eastern Spain, and the capital of Teruel Province. It has a population of 34,240 in 2006 making it one of the least populated provincial capitals in the country...
, which fell to the Castilians.
In 1357, Castile penetrated Aragon and conquered Tarazona
Tarazona
Tarazona is a municipality in the Spanish province of Zaragoza, in the autonomous community of Aragon. It is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Tarazona and the capital of the Tarazona y el Moncayo Aragonese comarca.- History :...
on March 9. On May 8, they arranged a temporary truce.
At the beginning of 1361, the Castilians conquered the fortresses of Verdejo
Verdejo
Verdejo is a variety of wine grape that has long been grown in the Rueda region of Spain. The grape originated in North Africa, and was spread to Rueda in about the 11th Century, possibly by Mozarabs. Verdejo was generally used to make a strongly oxidized, Sherry-like wine...
, Torrijos
Torrijos, Spain
Torrijos is a Spanish municipality of Toledo province, in the autonomous community of Castile-La Mancha. Its population is 12,000 and its surface is 17 km², with a density of 682.76 people/km². Torrijos is the center of the "comarca" of the same name....
, Alhama
Alhama
Alhama can refer to:* Alhama de Almería, a town in the province of Almería in Spain* Alhama de Aragón, a town in the province of Zaragoza in Spain* Alhama de Granada, a town in the province of Granada in Spain...
, and other places. However, the peace of Terrer (sometimes called the peace of Deza) was negotiated on May 18, 1361, in which all conquered places and castles were returned to their original lords. Bernardo de Cabrera
Bernardo de Cabrera
Bernardo de Cabrera was an Aragonese nobleman, diplomat, and military commander. Born in Calatayud, he participated in the conquest of Majorca...
, ambassador of the Aragonese king, negotiated the peace. Peter IV married his daughter Constance to Frederick III the Simple
Frederick III the Simple
Frederick III , called the Simple, was King of Sicily from 1355 to 1377. He was the second son of Peter II of Sicily and Elisabeth of Carinthia. He succeeded his brother Louis...
.
In June 1362, Peter of Castile met with Charles II of Navarre
Charles II of Navarre
Charles II , called "Charles the Bad", was King of Navarre 1349-1387 and Count of Évreux 1343-1387....
at Soria
Soria
Soria is a city in north-central Spain, the capital of the province of Soria in the autonomous community of Castile and León. , the municipality has a population of c. 39,500 inhabitants, nearly 40% of the population of the province...
, in which mutual aid was promised. He also contracted an alliance with Edward III of England
Edward III of England
Edward III was King of England from 1327 until his death and is noted for his military success. Restoring royal authority after the disastrous reign of his father, Edward II, Edward III went on to transform the Kingdom of England into one of the most formidable military powers in Europe...
and Edward's son The Black Prince
Edward, the Black Prince
Edward of Woodstock, Prince of Wales, Duke of Cornwall, Prince of Aquitaine, KG was the eldest son of King Edward III of England and his wife Philippa of Hainault as well as father to King Richard II of England....
.
With these negotiations complete, the Castilian king invaded Aragonese territory without officially declaring war, and the conflict commenced again. The Aragonese king was at Perpignan
Perpignan
-Sport:Perpignan is a rugby stronghold: their rugby union side, USA Perpignan, is a regular competitor in the Heineken Cup and seven times champion of the Top 14 , while their rugby league side plays in the engage Super League under the name Catalans Dragons.-Culture:Since 2004, every year in the...
without troops, and thus caught off guard. The Castilians took the castles of Arize
Arize
The Arize is a river of France, a right affluent of the Garonne. It arises at 1,355 in the massif of Arize, in the Pyrenees, in the department of Ariège. Its length is 67 km. It flows into the Garonne at Carbonne....
, Atece, Terrer, Moros, Cetina and Alhama
Alhama
Alhama can refer to:* Alhama de Almería, a town in the province of Almería in Spain* Alhama de Aragón, a town in the province of Zaragoza in Spain* Alhama de Granada, a town in the province of Granada in Spain...
. Peter of Castile was unable to take Calatayud
Calatayud
Calatayud is a city and municipality in the province of Zaragoza in Aragón, Spain lying on the river Jalón, in the midst of the Sistema Ibérico mountain range. It is the second-largest city in the province after the capital, Zaragoza, and the largest town in Aragón other than the three provincial...
, even though he attacked it with all types of siege machines. Without taking his conquests any further, he returned to Seville
Seville
Seville is the artistic, historic, cultural, and financial capital of southern Spain. It is the capital of the autonomous community of Andalusia and of the province of Seville. It is situated on the plain of the River Guadalquivir, with an average elevation of above sea level...
.
The next year (1363) Castile continued the war against Aragon, and again occupied Tarazona. Peter of Castile received reinforcements from Portugal
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
and Navarre
Navarre
Navarre , officially the Chartered Community of Navarre is an autonomous community in northern Spain, bordering the Basque Country, La Rioja, and Aragon in Spain and Aquitaine in France...
. Meanwhile, the Aragonese king negotiated a treaty with France
France in the Middle Ages
France in the Middle Ages covers an area roughly corresponding to modern day France, from the death of Louis the Pious in 840 to the middle of the 15th century...
and a secret treaty with Henry II of Castile.
Pedro of Castile then conquered Cariñena
Cariñena (DO)
Cariñena is a Spanish Denominación de Origen for wines located in Cariñena, Aragón, Spain. It is one of the oldest protected growing areas in Europe, the DO having been created in 1932. Cariñena vineyards are located near the centre of Aragón, about 50 km southwest of Zaragoza, on a plateau known...
, Teruel
Teruel
Teruel is a town in Aragon, eastern Spain, and the capital of Teruel Province. It has a population of 34,240 in 2006 making it one of the least populated provincial capitals in the country...
, Segorbe
Segorbe
Segorbe is a municipality in the mountainous coastal province of Castelló, autonomous community of Valencia, Spain. The former Palace of the Dukes of Medinaceli now houses the city's mayor...
, Morvedre, Almenara, Xiva, and Bunyol.
The papal
Holy See
The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Catholic Church in Rome, in which its Bishop is commonly known as the Pope. It is the preeminent episcopal see of the Catholic Church, forming the central government of the Church. As such, diplomatically, and in other spheres the Holy See acts and...
nuncio
Nuncio
Nuncio is an ecclesiastical diplomatic title, derived from the ancient Latin word, Nuntius, meaning "envoy." This article addresses this title as well as derived similar titles, all within the structure of the Roman Catholic Church...
Jean de la Grange
Jean de la Grange
Jean de La Grange was a French prelate and politician, active during the reigns of Charles V and Charles VI, and an important member of the papal curia at Avignon, at the time of the Western Schism...
arranged the peace of Morvedre (Sagunt) (July 2, 1363) between the two kings. However, it was not ratified, and hostilities continued. The Castilians penetrated the Kingdom of Valencia
Kingdom of Valencia
The Kingdom of Valencia , located in the eastern shore of the Iberian Peninsula, was one of the component realms of the Crown of Aragon. When the Crown of Aragon merged by dynastic union with the Crown of Castile to form the Kingdom of Spain, the Kingdom of Valencia became a component realm of the...
in 1363, and conquered Alicante
Alicante
Alicante or Alacant is a city in Spain, the capital of the province of Alicante and of the comarca of Alacantí, in the south of the Valencian Community. It is also a historic Mediterranean port. The population of the city of Alicante proper was 334,418, estimated , ranking as the second-largest...
, Caudete
Caudete
Caudete is a municipality in Albacete, Castile-La Mancha, Spain. It has a population of 10.157 and is located at ....
, Elda
Elda
Elda is a city located in the province of Alicante, Spain. , it has a total population of 55,618 inhabitants, ranking as the 7th most populous city in the province. Elda joins together with the town of Petrer to form a conurbation with over 85,000 inhabitants...
, Gandia
Gandia
Gandia is a city and municipality in the Valencian Community, Eastern Spain on the Mediterranean. Gandia is located on the Costa del Azahar, 65 km south of Valencia and 96 km north of Alicante....
, and other places.
War 1363-1369
From 1365 to 1369 Peter of Castile was preoccupied with maintaining his position on the Castilian throne against Henry of Trastámara.In 1366 began the Castilian Civil War
Castilian Civil War
The Castilian Civil War lasted three years from 1366 to 1369. It became part of the larger conflict then raging between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France: the Hundred Years' War...
which would see Peter of Castile dethroned. He was assailed by his illegitimate brother Henry of Trastamara at the head of a host of soldiers of fortune, including Bertrand du Guesclin
Bertrand du Guesclin
Bertrand du Guesclin , known as the Eagle of Brittany or the Black Dog of Brocéliande, was a Breton knight and French military commander during the Hundred Years' War. He was Constable of France from 1370 to his death...
and Hugh Calveley
Hugh Calveley
Sir Hugh Calveley was an English soldier and commander, who took part in the Hundred Years' War, gaining fame during the War of the Breton Succession and the Castilian Civil War...
, and abandoned the kingdom without daring to give battle, after retreating several times (first from Burgos
Burgos
Burgos is a city of northern Spain, historic capital of Castile. It is situated at the edge of the central plateau, with about 178,966 inhabitants in the city proper and another 20,000 in its suburbs. It is the capital of the province of Burgos, in the autonomous community of Castile and León...
, then from Toledo
Toledo, Spain
Toledo's Alcázar became renowned in the 19th and 20th centuries as a military academy. At the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 its garrison was famously besieged by Republican forces.-Economy:...
, and lastly from Seville
Seville
Seville is the artistic, historic, cultural, and financial capital of southern Spain. It is the capital of the autonomous community of Andalusia and of the province of Seville. It is situated on the plain of the River Guadalquivir, with an average elevation of above sea level...
) in the face of the oncoming armies. Peter fled, with his treasury, to Portugal, where he was coldly received by his uncle, King Peter I of Portugal
Peter I of Portugal
Peter I , called the Just , was the eighth King of Portugal and the Algarve from 1357 until his death. He was the third but only surviving son of Afonso IV of Portugal and his wife, princess Beatrice of Castile....
, and thence to Galicia, in northern Spain, where he ordered the murder of Suero, the archbishop of Santiago
Santiago de Compostela
Santiago de Compostela is the capital of the autonomous community of Galicia, Spain.The city's Cathedral is the destination today, as it has been throughout history, of the important 9th century medieval pilgrimage route, the Way of St. James...
, and the dean
Dean (religion)
A dean, in a church context, is a cleric holding certain positions of authority within a religious hierarchy. The title is used mainly in the Anglican Communion and the Roman Catholic Church.-Anglican Communion:...
, Perálvarez.
Peter of Castile was overthrown in 1369.
Valencia and Granada
The Kingdom of Granada supported Peter of Castile in this conflict. During the War of the Two Peters, southern ValenciaKingdom of Valencia
The Kingdom of Valencia , located in the eastern shore of the Iberian Peninsula, was one of the component realms of the Crown of Aragon. When the Crown of Aragon merged by dynastic union with the Crown of Castile to form the Kingdom of Spain, the Kingdom of Valencia became a component realm of the...
saw a lot of low-level ravaging and political instability as Castilian troops and their Moorish allies
Al-Andalus
Al-Andalus was the Arabic name given to a nation and territorial region also commonly referred to as Moorish Iberia. The name describes parts of the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania governed by Muslims , at various times in the period between 711 and 1492, although the territorial boundaries...
invaded this territory. The Castilians unsuccessfully laid siege to Orihuela
Orihuela
Orihuela is a city and municipality located at the feet of the Sierra de Orihuela mountains in the province of Alicante, Spain. The city of Orihuela had a population of 32,472 inhabitants in the beginning of 2006...
in 1364.
The war's end
This border conflict finally ended with the peace of Almazán (1375) leaving no clear victors. Castile recovered comarcaComarca
A comarca is a traditional region or local administrative division found in parts of Spain, Portugal, Panama, Nicaragua, and Brazil. The term is derived from the term marca, meaning a "march, mark", plus the prefix co- meaning "together, jointly".The comarca is known in Aragonese as redolada and...
s that had passed under Aragonese rule, such as the seignory
Seignory
In English law, Seignory or seigniory , the lordship remaining to a grantor after the grant of an estate in fee simple....
of Molina
Molina
Molina is a Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian surname. It can possibly refer to:-A:*Alfonso Quiñónez Molina , President of El Salvador twice 1918–1927*Alfred Molina , English actor...
. A marriage was contracted between Eleanor of Aragon, daughter of Peter IV of Aragon, and John I of Castile
John I of Castile
John I was the king of Crown of Castile, was the son of Henry II and of his wife Juana Manuel of Castile, daughter of Juan Manuel, Prince of Villena, head of a younger branch of the royal house of Castile...
, the successor of Henry II of Castile.
The misery of this war was worsened by the Black Death
Black Death
The Black Death was one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, peaking in Europe between 1348 and 1350. Of several competing theories, the dominant explanation for the Black Death is the plague theory, which attributes the outbreak to the bacterium Yersinia pestis. Thought to have...
and other natural disasters, such as drought
Drought
A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply. Generally, this occurs when a region receives consistently below average precipitation. It can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region...
and a plague of locust
Locust
Locusts are the swarming phase of short-horned grasshoppers of the family Acrididae. These are species that can breed rapidly under suitable conditions and subsequently become gregarious and migratory...
s. The war ruined the Aragonese economy, coinciding with a decrease of the country’s population caused by the war and the Black Death. The cathedral of Tarazona was destroyed during the war, and not rebuilt until much later.
However, the war is believed to have led to the establishment of administrative and military forces that would ultimately result in a unified Castile and Aragon in the next century.