Water supply and sanitation in Tanzania

Tanzania Tanzania The United Republic of Tanzania is a country in East Africa bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north, Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, and Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique to the south. The country's eastern borders lie on the Indian Ocean.Tanzania is a state... : Water and Sanitation

Data
Access to an improved water source Improved water source According to the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation by the World Health Organization and UNICEF the following are considered as "improved" water sources:* household connections* public standpipes* boreholes* protected dug wells...	52% (2007)
Access to improved sanitation Improved sanitation According to the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation by the World Health Organization and UNICEF the following are considered as "improved" sanitation:* connection to a public sewer* connection to a septic system* pour-flush latrine...	33% (2006)
Continuity of supply (%)	Mostly intermittent (17 out of 20 urban areas)
Average urban water use (l/c/d)	not available
Average urban water tariff (US$/m3)	0.34 (2008)
Share of household metering	60% (in 20 urban areas)
Annual investment in WSS	US$175m (fiscal year 2008-09), or US$4/capita
Share of self-financing by utilities	Low
Share of tax-financing	Low
Share of external financing	88%
Institutions
Decentralization	Yes
National water and sanitation company	No
Water and sanitation regulator	Energy and Water Utilities Regulatory Authority (EWURA)
Responsibility for policy setting	Ministry of Water and Irrigation Ministry of Water and Irrigation, Tanzania The Ministry of Water and Irrigation is the government ministry principally responsible for water supply, water resources, and irrigation in Tanzania.Offices are located in Dar es Salaam; the sitting Minister for Water and Irrigation is the Hon. Prof... (water supply), Ministry of Health and Social Welfare Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, Tanzania The Ministry of Health and Social Welfare is a government ministry of Tanzania. Central offices are located in Dar es Salaam.-Organization and operations:... (sanitation)
Sector law	Water Supply and Sanitation Act Nr. 12 of 2009
Number of urban service providers	20 Urban Water and Sanitation Authorities (UWSSAs) in cities, about 100 in towns
Number of rural service providers	8,394 water committees (2007)

Water supply and sanitation in Tanzania is characterised by: decreasing access to improved water source

Improved water source

According to the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation by the World Health Organization and UNICEF the following are considered as "improved" water sources:* household connections* public standpipes* boreholes* protected dug wells...

s in the 2000s (especially in urban areas), steady access to some form of sanitation (around 93% since the 1990s), intermittent water supply and generally low quality of service. Many utilities are barely able to cover their operation and maintenance costs through revenues due to low tariffs and poor efficiency. There are significant regional

Regions of Tanzania

Tanzania is divided into 26 regions.-See also:* list of Tanzanian regions by area ranks the regions by their total area, land area, and water area.* Districts of Tanzania* ISO 3166-2:TZ-External links:*...

differences and the best performing utilities are Arusha

Arusha

Arusha is a city in northern Tanzania. It is the capital of the Arusha Region, which claims a population of 1,288,088, including 281,608 for the Arusha District . Arusha is surrounded by some of Africa's most famous landscapes and national parks...

and Tanga

Tanga, Tanzania

Tanga is both the name of the most northerly seaport city of Tanzania, and the surrounding Tanga Region. It is the Regional Headquarters of the region.With a population of 243,580 in 2002, Tanga is one of the largest cities in the country...

.

The Government of Tanzania has embarked on a major sector reform process since 2002. An ambitious National Water Sector Development Strategy that promotes integrated water resources management

Integrated Water Resources Management

Integrated Water Resources Management has been defined by the Technical Committee of the Global Water Partnership as "a process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land...

and the development of urban and rural water supply was adopted in 2006. Decentralisation has meant that responsibility for water and sanitation service provision has shifted to local government authorities and is carried out by 20 urban utilities and about 100 district utilities, as well as by Community Owned Water Supply Organisations in rural areas.

These reforms have been backed by a significant increase of the budget starting in 2006, when the water sector was included among the priority sectors of the National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty MKUKUTA. The Tanzanian water sector remains heavily dependent on external donors: 88% of the available funds are provided by external donor organisations. Results have been mixed. For example, a report by GTZ notes that "despite heavy investments brought in by the World Bank

World Bank

The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans to developing countries for capital programmes.The World Bank's official goal is the reduction of poverty...

and the European Union

European Union

The European Union is an economic and political union of 27 independent member states which are located primarily in Europe. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community , formed by six countries in 1958...

, (the utility serving Dar es Salaam

Dar es Salaam

Dar es Salaam , formerly Mzizima, is the largest city in Tanzania. It is also the country's richest city and a regionally important economic centre. Dar es Salaam is actually an administrative province within Tanzania, and consists of three local government areas or administrative districts: ...

) has remained one of the worst performing water entities in Tanzania."

Access

Access to water and sanitation remains low in Tanzania. Determining data on access is particularly difficult because different definitions and sources are used, which results in significant discrepancies. According to a report, household surveys regularly return lower rural water supply coverage than estimates by the Ministry of Water and Irrigation

Ministry of Water and Irrigation, Tanzania

The Ministry of Water and Irrigation is the government ministry principally responsible for water supply, water resources, and irrigation in Tanzania.Offices are located in Dar es Salaam; the sitting Minister for Water and Irrigation is the Hon. Prof...

(which are collected by district water engineers and urban water and sanitation authorities). For urban areas, survey data are consistently higher because they also include households that are not connected to the formal water supply network and access water from neighbours, protected wells or boreholes.

Water supply. Slightly more than half the population of Tanzania is estimated to have access to an improved water source

Improved water source

, with stark differences between urban areas (about 81%) and rural areas (about 46%). In rural areas, access is defined as meaning that households have to travel less than one kilometre to a protected drinking water source in the dry season. Trends in access to water supply are difficult to discern due to conflicting and unreliable data. However, it seems that access increased during the 1990s, particularly in rural areas, but stagnated during the 2000s. According to data from the Household Budget Surveys 2000/2001 and 2007 access to an improved water source

Improved water source

in mainland Tanzania even decreased from 55% in 2000 to 52% in 2007. Using a narrow definition, in 2007 around 34% of households had access to piped water, as opposed to 40% in 2000. However, using a broader definition of access that also includes standpipes and protected springs, there has been a slight increase in the proportion of households reporting a drinking water source within one kilometre. Estimates from the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation

Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation

The Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation is a programme co-funded by the World Health Organization and UNICEF. "The goals of the JMP are to report on the status of water-supply and sanitation, and to support countries in their efforts to monitor this sector, which will enable...

(JMP) show a different trend. They show an increase in access from 49% in 1990 to 53% in 2000 and 55% in 2006, mainly through an increase in rural areas, where 75% of Tanzanians lived in 2006. According to these figures, access in rural areas increased from 39% in 1990 to 44% in 2000 and 46% in 2006, while in urban areas it decreased from 90% to 81% over the same period. The JMP estimates rely on extrapolations using, among others, data from the Household Budget Survey 2000/2001, the Census of 2002 and the Demographic and Health Surveys of 1999 and 2004-2005.

Sanitation. National Household Budget Surveys ask respondents about the type of sanitary facility they have. In 2007 93% of Tanzanians responded that they had some form of latrine

Latrine

A latrine is a communal facility containing one or more commonly many toilets which may be simple pit toilets or in the case of the United States Armed Forces any toilet including modern flush toilets...

, but only 3% had a flush toilet. International statistics that monitor the achievement of the Millennium Development Goal for sanitation are based on these numbers, but only after making some important adjustments in an effort to achieve comparability across countries. The Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation

Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation

(JMP) defines improved sanitation

Improved sanitation

According to the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation by the World Health Organization and UNICEF the following are considered as "improved" sanitation:* connection to a public sewer* connection to a septic system* pour-flush latrine...

as excreta disposal systems that are private and that separate human excreta from human contact. Shared latrines or open pit latrines are excluded from this definition. The JMP estimates that only about half the latrines in Tanzania can be considered improved sanitation systems. Based on that definition, access to improved sanitation

Improved sanitation

is much lower than the population with access to any type of latrine. According to the JMP definition, access to improved sanitation was only 33% in 2006 down from 35% in 2000, with a slight increase in urban areas and a slight decrease in rural areas.

Access to Water and Sanitation in Tanzania (2007)
		Dar es Salaam (6% of population)	Other urban areas (19% of population)	Rural (75% of population)	Total
Water	Broad definition Improved water source According to the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation by the World Health Organization and UNICEF the following are considered as "improved" water sources:* household connections* public standpipes* boreholes* protected dug wells...	85%	76%	40%	52%
Water	House connections	8%	13%	1%	4%
Sanitation	All forms, including latrines	97%	97%	90%	93%
Sanitation	Flush Toilets	10%	6%	1%	3%

Service quality

Continuity of supply. Of the twenty Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Authorities (UWSSAs) that operate in Tanzania, three are able to provide continuous water supply (Arusha

Arusha

, Songea

Songea

Songea is the capital of the Ruvuma Region in southeastern Tanzania. It is located along the A19 road. The city has a population of approximately 130,000, and is the seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Songea. Between 1905 and 1907 the city was a centre of African resistance during the Maji...

and Tanga

Tanga, Tanzania

). In eleven other cities water is supplied for at least 19 hours. In Babati

Babati

Babati is a small city and district of the Manyara Region of Tanzania. The administrative capital of the district 'Babati Town' is located also administrative capital of the newly formed Manyara Region, 172 km south of Arusha. The District is the capital of Manyara Region...

and Mtwara there is water supply for 12 hours per day. The lowest figures (5 hours per day) come from the cities of Kigoma

Kigoma

Kigoma is a town and lake port in western Tanzania, on the eastern shore of Lake Tanganyika and close to the border with Burundi. It serves as the capital for the surrounding Kigoma Region and has a population of 135,234 and an elevation of 775 m.The historic trading town of Ujiji is 6 km...

, Lindi

Lindi

Lindi is a coastal town located at the far end of the Lindi Bay, on the Indian Ocean in southeastern Tanzania. The town is 450 kilometers south of Dar es Salaam and 105 kilometers north of Mtwara, the southernmost coastal town in Tanzania, and gives its name to the surrounding Lindi Region, one...

and Singida. In Dar es Salaam water is supplied on average for 9 hours per day.

Water quality. Water quality varies significantly within the country. In the semi-arid regions (including Dodoma

Dodoma

Dodoma , officially Dodoma Urban District, population 324,347 , is the national capital of Tanzania, and the capital of the Dodoma region. In 1973, plans were made to move the capital to Dodoma...

, Singida, Tabora

Tabora

Tabora is the capital city of Tanzania's Tabora Region with a population of 127,880 . Tabora region is one of the largest geographical regions of Tanzania.- History :...

, Shinyanga

Shinyanga

Shinyanga, also known as Shinyanga mji in the local Swahili language, is a city in northern Tanzania. The city is the location of the regional headquarters of Shinyanga Region as well as the district headquarters of Shinyanga Urban District...

, and Arusha

Arusha

), colour and turbidity levels become problematic during the rainy season. Rivers in the fluoride belt (including Arusha, Kilimanjaro, Singida, and Shinyanga regions of the Rift Valley, and extending to the Pangani and Internal Drainage basins) have naturally high fluoride

Fluoride

Fluoride is the anion F−, the reduced form of fluorine when as an ion and when bonded to another element. Both organofluorine compounds and inorganic fluorine containing compounds are called fluorides. Fluoride, like other halides, is a monovalent ion . Its compounds often have properties that are...

concentrations. The waters of Lakes Tanganyika

Lake Tanganyika

Lake Tanganyika is an African Great Lake. It is estimated to be the second largest freshwater lake in the world by volume, and the second deepest, after Lake Baikal in Siberia; it is also the world's longest freshwater lake...

and Nyasa have overall good water quality except in the vicinity of urban
areas where effluent and storm water cause local contamination, whereas the water quality of Lake Victoria

Lake Victoria

Lake Victoria is one of the African Great Lakes. The lake was named for Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, by John Hanning Speke, the first European to discover this lake....

is poor: high turbidity and nutrient levels lead to frequent blooms of algae and infestations of
water weeds.

Controls of the quality of drinking water fall under the responsibility of local service providers at the point of water production. They refer to Water Quality Standards established for urban and rural areas in the 1970s.

A water pollution incident occurred at the Barrick Gold

Barrick Gold

Barrick Gold Corporation is the largest pure gold mining company in the world, with its headquarters in Toronto, Ontario, Canada; and four regional business units located in Australia, Africa, North America and South America...

North Mara Mine in May 2009, when acidic water (pH

In chemistry, pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Pure water is said to be neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at . Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline...

4.8) seeped from a mine rock storage facility into the Tigithe River, which is used for irrigation, bathing and as an unprotected source of drinking water.

Wastewater treatment.
Of the twenty major urban water utilities, 11 provide some access to sewer connections. In Moshi

Moshi

Moshi is a Tanzanian town with a population of 144,739 in Kilimanjaro Region. The town is situated on the lower slopes of Mt Kilimanjaro, a volcanic mountain that is the highest mountain in Africa....

the reported connection rate is 45% (although this also includes some industrial connections), in Morogoro

Morogoro

Morogoro is a city with an urban population of 206,868 in the southern highlands of Tanzania, 190 km west of Dar es Salaam. It is the capital of the Morogoro Region...

the reported rate is 15% and in Dodoma

Dodoma

Dodoma , officially Dodoma Urban District, population 324,347 , is the national capital of Tanzania, and the capital of the Dodoma region. In 1973, plans were made to move the capital to Dodoma...

and Iringa

Iringa

Iringa is a city in Tanzania with a population of 112,900 . It is situated at a latitude of 7.77°S and longitude of 35.69°E. The name is derived from the Hehe word lilinga, meaning fort....

it is 13%. In Dar es Salaam the length of the sewer network is estimated at 188 km, although only 4% of households have access to it.

According to an article by a group of researchers from the Waste Stabilisation Ponds and Constructed Wetlands (WSP & CW) Research Group at the University of Dar es Salaam, stabilization pond

Stabilization pond

Stabilization pond technology - sometimes also called facultative pond technology - is a natural method for wastewater treatment.-Technology:Stabilization ponds consist of shallow man-made basins comprising a single or several series of anaerobic, facultative or maturation ponds...

s have been the most common technology for wastewater treatment in Tanzania. Waste stabilisation ponds have been introduced since the late 1960s, due to the favourable tropical climate and the availability of natural wetlands. At that time, twenty wastewater pond systems were recorded as existing, five of them were used to treat textile, paper mill, tannery and other industrial wastewater. However, many waste stabilisation ponds systems are ineffective because of poor operation and maintenance, design and configuration mistakes and the mixing of municipal and industrial wastes. Starting in 1998, constructed wetland

Constructed wetland

A constructed wetland or wetpark is an artificial wetland, marsh or swamp created as a new or restored habitat for native and migratory wildlife, for anthropogenic discharge such as wastewater, stormwater runoff, or sewage treatment, for land reclamation after mining, refineries, or other...

s were introduced in Tanzania. Ten units have been built for residential houses and institutions such as schools, prisons and colleges. They serve about 12,000 people.

In addition, wastewater treatment plants are reported to operate in the municipalities of Morogoro

Morogoro

Morogoro is a city with an urban population of 206,868 in the southern highlands of Tanzania, 190 km west of Dar es Salaam. It is the capital of the Morogoro Region...

, Dodoma

Dodoma

Dodoma , officially Dodoma Urban District, population 324,347 , is the national capital of Tanzania, and the capital of the Dodoma region. In 1973, plans were made to move the capital to Dodoma...

, Iringa

Iringa

Iringa is a city in Tanzania with a population of 112,900 . It is situated at a latitude of 7.77°S and longitude of 35.69°E. The name is derived from the Hehe word lilinga, meaning fort....

, Arusha

Arusha

and Songea

Songea

and in the cities of Dar es Salaam and Mwanza. Wastewater samples are collected from these wastewater treatment plants. The result of the analysis of 250 samples showed that national standards for effluent prior to discharge were met in 88% of cases.

Water resources

As a whole and on average, Tanzania has extensive water resources

Water resources

Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful. Uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. Virtually all of these human uses require fresh water....

. According to the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), in 2008 Tanzania had 96.27 km³ of renewable water resources per year (by comparison, estimated world water resources are in the order of 43,750 km³/year). This corresponds to 2,266 m³ per person and year. Water resources are however distributed unevenly - both in time and space. During the dry season, which usually lasts from June to October, even large rivers can dry up or their flow declines substantially. Some parts of the country receive, on average, up to 3,000mm of rain per year, while in other regions (such as the Dodoma Region

Dodoma Region

Dodoma is one of the regions of Tanzania. The region covers an area of 41,310 km² and has 1,698,996 inhabitants . The region is the 12th region of Tanzania in area and covers about 5% of the mainland of the country . The capital of the region is the city of Dodoma.The region produces beans, seeds,...

or the Rift Valley

Great Rift Valley

The Great Rift Valley is a name given in the late 19th century by British explorer John Walter Gregory to the continuous geographic trench, approximately in length, that runs from northern Syria in Southwest Asia to central Mozambique in South East Africa...

) yearly rainfall averages 600mm.

Projections indicate that by 2025 Tanzania will experience water stress

Water stress

Researchers define water stress and water scarcity in different ways. For example, some have presented maps showing the physical existence of water in nature to show nations with lower or higher volumes of water available for use. Others have related water availability to population...

(defined as average per capita water resources below 1,500 m³) due to population growth and the resulting increase in consumption.

As of 2002, water use for municipal water supply in mainland Tanzania was about 493 million m³/year, or 0.5% of total renewable water resources.
Lakes alone cover about 7% of Tanzania's land surface On the borders there are three African Great Lakes

African Great Lakes

The African Great Lakes are a series of lakes and the Rift Valley lakes in and around the geographic Great Rift Valley formed by the action of the tectonic East African Rift on the continent of Africa...

: Lake Victoria

Lake Victoria

Lake Victoria is one of the African Great Lakes. The lake was named for Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, by John Hanning Speke, the first European to discover this lake....

, Lake Tanganyika

Lake Tanganyika

and Lake Nyasa; inland lakes include Lake Rukwa

Lake Rukwa

Lake Rukwa is a lake in southwestern Tanzania. The alkaline Lake Rukwa lies midway between Lake Tanganyika and Lake Nyasa at an elevation of about 800 metres, in a parallel branch of the rift system. The lake has seen large fluctuations in its size over the years, due to varying inflow of streams...

, Lake Eyasi

Lake Eyasi

Lake Eyasi is a seasonal shallow endorheic salt lake on the floor of the Great Rift Valley at the base of the Serengeti Plateau, just south of the Serengeti National Park and immediately southwest of the Ngorongoro Crater in the Crater Highlands of Tanzania...

and Lake Manyara

Lake Manyara

Lake Manyara is a shallow lake in the Natron-Manyara-Balangida branch of the Great Rift Valley in Tanzania. Said by Ernest Hemingway to be the "loveliest [lake] .....

. There are nine major drainage basins in Tanzania, divided according to the recipient water body. The Lake Victoria

Lake Victoria

Lake Victoria is one of the African Great Lakes. The lake was named for Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, by John Hanning Speke, the first European to discover this lake....

basin drains to the Mediterranean Sea (through the Nile River basin). Draining to the Indian Ocean there are the Pangani River

Pangani River

The Pangani River is a major river of northeastern Tanzania, which rises in Kilimanjaro, passes through Lake Jipe, and empties into the Indian Ocean at the town of Pangani...

Basin, the Ruvu/Wami River

Wami River

The Wami River lies entirely within the African nation of Tanzania in the Pwani Region and Morogoro Region in eastern Tanzania. Its source is specified in the Kaguru Mountains and it flows East entering the Indian Ocean west of Zanzibar. But its catchment area extends from the Kinyasangwe River to...

basin, the Rufiji River

Rufiji River

The Rufiji River lies entirely within the African nation of Tanzania. The river is formed by the convergence of the Kilombero and Luwegu rivers. It is approximately 600 km long, with its source in southwestern Tanzania and its mouth on the Indian Ocean at a point between Mafia Island called Mafia...

basin, the Ruvuma River

Ruvuma River

Ruvuma River, formerly also known as the Rovuma River, is a river in East Africa, forming during the greater part of its course the border between Tanzania and Mozambique . It is long, with a drainage basin in size...

and Southern Coast basin, the Lake Nyasa basin. The Lake Tanganyika

Lake Tanganyika

basin drains to the Atlantic Ocean

Atlantic Ocean

The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's oceanic divisions. With a total area of about , it covers approximately 20% of the Earth's surface and about 26% of its water surface area...

through the Congo River

Congo River

The Congo River is a river in Africa, and is the deepest river in the world, with measured depths in excess of . It is the second largest river in the world by volume of water discharged, though it has only one-fifth the volume of the world's largest river, the Amazon...

basin. The Internal Drainage basin and the Lake Rukwa

Lake Rukwa

basin belong to the Rift Valley

Great Rift Valley

(endorheic

Endorheic

An endorheic basin is a closed drainage basin that retains water and allows no outflow to other bodies of water such as rivers or oceans...

) basin.

Tanzania has been divided into nine administrative units corresponding to the nine major river or lake basins. Basin Water Offices (BWOs) are responsible for regulating and planning the use of water resources, based on the Water Resources Management Act Nr. 11 of 2009. The water resource management section of the Water Sector Development Programme requires that their activities be carried out in line with the principles of Integrated Water Resources Management

Integrated Water Resources Management

.
It has however been noted that BWOs suffer from severe institutional weaknesses: they often lack necessary information, clear development plans to guide investments and support monitoring and are largely characterised by weak human capacity.

History and recent developments

The history of water supply and sanitation in Tanzania since independence is characterized by ambitious plans that, to a large extent, failed to achieve their objectives.

Late colonial period

In the 1950s the few settlements with piped water supply charged for water sold at water kiosks or through residential connections. In rural areas systems were operated and maintained by cooperatives, such as the Makonde Water Development Cooperation in the Mtwara Region

Mtwara Region

Mtwara is a southern region of Tanzania which has been underdeveloped for a long time: development is constrained by the lack of highway and energy infrastructures. The Dar es Salaam-Kibiti-Lindi-Mtwara road has been improved by the completion of the Mkapa bridge over the Rufiji River...

of Southern Tanzania. One of the promises of the independence movement at that time was to provide water for free, a promise that was kept when Tanganyika

Tanganyika

Tanganyika , later formally the Republic of Tanganyika, was a sovereign state in East Africa from 1961 to 1964. It was situated between the Indian Ocean and the African Great Lakes of Lake Victoria, Lake Malawi and Lake Tanganyika...

gained independence in 1961.

Ujamaa:Top-down projects and free rural water supply (1964–1991)

After the union of the former British colonies Tanganyika

Tanganyika

and Zanzibar

Zanzibar

Zanzibar ,Persian: زنگبار, from suffix bār: "coast" and Zangi: "bruin" ; is a semi-autonomous part of Tanzania, in East Africa. It comprises the Zanzibar Archipelago in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of the mainland, and consists of numerous small islands and two large ones: Unguja , and Pemba...

to form the United Republic of Tanzania in 1964, then President Julius Nyerere

Julius Nyerere

Julius Kambarage Nyerere was a Tanzanian politician who served as the first President of Tanzania and previously Tanganyika, from the country's founding in 1961 until his retirement in 1985....

implemented a policy of African socialism

African socialism

African socialism is a belief in sharing economic resources in a "traditional" African way, as distinct from classical socialism. Many African politicians of the 1950s and 1960s professed their support for African socialism, although definitions and interpretations of this term varied...

called Ujamaa

Ujamaa

Ujamaa was the concept that formed the basis of Julius Nyerere's social and economic development policies in Tanzania just after it gained independence from Britain in 1961...

. This included the forced resettlement of dispersed rural smallholders to collective farms. One of the stated objectives of the resettlement was to facilitate the provision of education, health services as well as water supply.
In the spirit of the Ujamaa the government launched a 20-year Rural Water Supply Programme (RWSP) in 1971 with the aim of providing access to adequate and safe water supply within a walking distance of 400 meters from each household by the year 1991. Under this programme, water was provided free of charge in rural areas, while moderate tariffs were charged for house connections in urban areas. Implementation was highly centralized: In 1972 the central government abolished local government authorities that were replaced by central government representatives in committees at the district and village level under a policy that was ironically labelled "decentralization". Donors supported the program by funding more than 80% of investments in water supply during the 1970s.

According to a report by WaterAid

WaterAid

WaterAid is an international non-profit organisation set up as a response to the UN International Drinking Water & Sanitation decade . WaterAid is dedicated to helping people escape the poverty and disease caused by living without safe water and sanitation. It is based in London, England and was...

, “the resulting water projects were unsustainable and left a legacy of distrust among villagers for government programmes”. Villages were selected based on purely technical criteria by the district water department without consultation with communities. Deep boreholes were drilled and equipped with pumps and diesel engines that should have been maintained by the government using central funds. This did not work well and many of the pumps were inoperable. In subsequent years public services collapsed and a serious outbreak of cholera occurred in many urban areas between 1976-1980. In response to this failure Town and Municipal Councils were re-established in 1978, but remained without any revenue of their own and depended completely on central government funding. Public service provision remained poor. Although politicians and donors recognized had recognized by that time that the policy of free rural water supply and centralized management had failed, it took them more than two decades from its inception to change that policy. A mid-term review of the RWSP conducted in 1985 showed that only 46% of the rural population had access to water supply services. Among the reasons were the lack of involvement by beneficiaries, the use of inappropriate technologies and an inadequate, overly centralized institutional framework.

Community participation and management (1991–present time)

The socialist policy of Ujamaa

Ujamaa

Ujamaa was the concept that formed the basis of Julius Nyerere's social and economic development policies in Tanzania just after it gained independence from Britain in 1961...

was gradually phased out when Nyerere handed power over to Ali Hassan Mwinyi

Ali Hassan Mwinyi

Ali Hassan Mwinyi is a Tanzanian politician. He was the second President of the United Republic of Tanzania from 1985 to 1995. Previous posts include Interior Minister and Vice President...

, first as President in 1985 and then as head of the ruling party in 1990. The government initiated political and administrative reforms, as part of which the first National Water Policy was approved in 1991. At the core of the reforms was the Local Government Reform Programme aimed at decentralising power by devolving resources and responsibility for service delivery to district and municipal councils, including transfers of conditional and unconditional block grants to the councils. The National Water Policy emphasized community participation in the selection of projects and in operating and maintaining them through water committees that charged for water. Villagers also had to make a cash contributions towards capital costs and contributed time and labour, local materials and hospitality for visiting government staff. They also undertook hygiene education and serve on health committees.

A pilot for the new policy was initiated by WaterAid

WaterAid

in Dodoma Urban District

Dodoma Urban

Dodoma Urban is one of the 5 districts of the Dodoma Region of Tanzania. It is bordered to the North by the Dodoma Rural district, to the East by the Mpwapwa District, to the South by the Iringa Region and to the West by the Singida Region....

together with the district government. An innovative feature of the project was that the water department worked closely with the community development department and the health department. Both had previously not been involved in water projects. Using the acronyms of the three departments and of WaterAid the integrated team was called WAMMA, giving the project its name. Each of the three departmental teams had to have both men and women among its staff, although this was difficult to implement because of a shortage of female staff. Unlike before, communities were selected based on a needs survey. However, government staff at all levels were poorly paid and had little interesting work to do. Some were consequently demotivated. Like many other externally-funded projects, the WAMMA project paid allowances to fieldworkers for work undertaken outside their offices in order to motivate them. However, “payments were made at the official rate, as any higher allowances would undermine the government’s capacity to sustain or replicate work without donor inputs.” Interestingly, WaterAid initially worked directly at the district level without any formal agreement with the regional government until 1995. The programme, which was considered a success by WaterAid and the district government, was subsequently extended from Dodoma Urban District to three other districts in Dodoma Region

Dodoma Region

. 86 projects were built under between 1991 and 1996. The innovative collaborative work between three district departments and the participatory approach attracted visitors from all over Tanzania.

A Water Sector Review conducted in 1993 revealed that the problems in the water sector identified in 1985 persisted at the national level and suggested further reforms. To implement these reforms in urban areas, the Waterworks Act, Cap 272 was introduced in 1993. Its aim was to regulate the supply of water through urban public authorities.

In 1996 new guidelines for the National Water Policy were released, which were inspired by guidelines developed under the WAMMA program. Concerning rural areas they state that villages are responsible for all operation and maintenance costs and that cost sharing is expected for capital costs. Since 1997, 19 Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Authorities (UWSSAs) have operated services in larger urban centres under a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the Ministry of Water, which contains performance indicators to be reported to the Ministry.

Short-lived privatization in Dar es Salaam (2003–2005)

In August 2003, City Water Services Ltd., a British-German consortium, was awarded a ten year lease contract to manage the water supply infrastructure of Dar es Salaam. City Water took over responsibility for operating the water system, billing, tariff collection and routine maintenance, while DAWASA remained in charge of rehabilitating and expanding the water network. The contract was terminated two years later for alleged breach of contract and poor performance.

See also:Water privatization in Tanzania

Water privatization in Tanzania

Water privatization in Dar es Salaam began with the award of a 10-year lease contract signed in 2003 for Dar es Salaam, the largest city and former capital of Tanzania. It was signed between the government of Tanzania and City Water, a consortium consisting of the British firm Biwater, Gauff...

Responsibility for water supply and sanitation

Water and sanitation policies and strategies are defined by Ministries at the national level; economic regulation of services provision is undertaken by a national authority and environmental regulation by a National Council; service provision is the responsibility of various local entities.

Legal framework

The legal framework for water supply and sanitation is based on the Water Supply and Sanitation Act Nr. 12 enacted in May 2009. The Act outlines the responsibilities of government authorities involved in the water sector, establishes Water Supply and Sanitation Authorities as commercial entities and allows for their clustering where this leads to improved commercial viability. It also provides for the registration and operation of Community Owned Water Supply Organisations and regulates the appointment of board members.

Responsibilities of institutions at the national level

Ministries. The Ministry of Water and Irrigation

Ministry of Water and Irrigation, Tanzania

(MoWI) is the agency responsible for overall WSDP policy setting, co-ordination, monitoring, evaluation and regulating community water supplies. The promotion of hygiene and sanitation is in the hands of the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare

Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, Tanzania

The Ministry of Health and Social Welfare is a government ministry of Tanzania. Central offices are located in Dar es Salaam.-Organization and operations:...

. Decentralisation in the Tanzanian water and sanitation sector has transferred responsibilities for service provision to Local Government Authorities (LGAs). LGAs comprise 132 municipal, district

Districts of Tanzania

The regions of Tanzania are divided into 127 districts . The districts are listed below, by region:-Arusha Region:* Arumeru* Arusha* Karatu* Longido* Monduli* Ngorongoro-Dodoma:* Dodoma Rural* Dodoma Urban* Kondoa* Kongwa* Mpwapwa...

and town councils: they are responsible for the procurement, financing, management and monitoring of service providers in their administrative area. In this, they are advised by the Prime Minister's Office - Regional Administration and Local Government (PMO-RALG). PMO-RALG plays a key co-ordination role in planning and capacity building for local authorities. It is also responsible for allocating resources for service delivery. The Regional Secretariat provides technical support to LGAs and monitors their activity.

Other ministries play an active role in the water and sanitation sector. The Ministry of Finance and Economic Affairs (MoFEA) oversees intra-government funding and is responsible for the overall planning and budgeting, including the water and sanitation sector. The Ministry of Education and Vocational Training is responsible for hygiene education and the provision of sanitation in schools. Sector ministries are responsible for the use of water resources for irrigation, industrial use and energy generation.

Cooperation between Ministries. In 2009, the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, MoWI, the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training and PMO-RALG signed a Memorandum of Understanding for the integrated implementation of sanitation and hygiene activities. The aim of the MoU was to facilitate their cooperation and co-ordination in carrying out their responsibilities related to sanitation and hygiene. Co-operation will occur through the National Sanitation and Hygiene Steering and Technical Committees.

Economic regulation. Commercial water service providers are regulated by the Energy and Water Utilities Regulatory Authority (EWURA) established in 2001 by the Energy and Water Utilities Regulatory Authority Act, Cap 414. EWURA is responsible for licensing, tariff review and approval, performance monitoring and standards.EWURA Homepage, retrieved Feb 2010 It started operating in the water sector in 2006.

Environmental regulation. Screening of possible environmental impacts on proposed project sites is carried out by the National Environment Management Council (NEMC) as part of the Environmental and Social Management Framework. NEMC is responsible for setting standards and issuing permits for the discharge of effluents into the environment, including into water resources.

Policies and strategies

The National Water Sector Development Strategy (NWSDS) of 2006 sets out a strategy for implementing the National Water Policy NAWAPO of 2002. NAWAPO aims to achieve sustainable development in the sector through an "efficient use of water resources and efforts to increase the availability of water and sanitation services." It is guided by the principles of decentralisation and localisation of management and services.

The National Water Sector Development Programme (WSDP) of 2006 is centred on commercial service provision including private sector participation in urban areas and community ownership and management in rural areas. It also sets out to implement "demand driven approaches". The programme "promotes the integration of water supply and sanitation with hygiene education." The WSDP has four components:

Water resources management;
Institutional development and capacity building;
Rural water supply and sanitation - as part of this component comprehensive district water supply and sanitation plans are to be developed;
Urban water supply and sanitation - which aims at the execution of utility business plans in regional and district capitals, as well as at the implementation of national and small towns water schemes.

Water and sanitation policies in Tanzania are developed in line with Development Vision 2025 and the National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty, better known under its Swahili

Swahili language

Swahili or Kiswahili is a Bantu language spoken by various ethnic groups that inhabit several large stretches of the Mozambique Channel coastline from northern Kenya to northern Mozambique, including the Comoro Islands. It is also spoken by ethnic minority groups in Somalia...

name MKUKUTA (Mkakati wa Kukuza Uchumi na Kupunguza Umasikini Tanzania). Universal access to safe water is one of the objectives of Vision 2025, to be realised "through the involvement of the private sector and the empowerment of local government." The importance of water supply and adequate sanitation is recognised in the second cluster of MKUKUTA ("Improvement of quality of life and social well being"). Here, one of the primary goals is to achieve "increased access to clean, affordable and safe water, sanitation, decent shelter, and a safe and sustainable environment."

Service provision

Urban areas

In cities, the maintenance and development of water and sewerage infrastructure is carried out by Urban Water and Sanitation Authorities (UWSSAs). UWSSAs are autonomous legal entities that are meant to operate on the basis of commercial principles. They have been established in 19 major urban cities in accordance with the Waterworks Act No. 8 of 1997. In 2001, the Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Authority - DAWASA - was established to service Dar es Salaam

Dar es Salaam

and two districts of Pwani Region

Pwani Region

Pwani is one of the 26 regions of Tanzania. Kibaha serves as the region's capital. The region is bordered to the North by the Tanga Region, to the East by Dar-es-Salaam and the Indian Ocean, to the South by the Lindi Region and to the West by the Morogoro Region...

.

In districts and small towns MoWI initiated (in 2007) a process of clustering affecting over one hundred utilities (the so called District Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Authorities - DUWSSAs). Its aim is to increase the quality and efficiency of service. Urban and district water utilities are not responsible for on-site sanitation, which remains in the hands of the relevant local council.

Rural areas

Overview. In rural areas, water supply and sanitation services are provided by Community Owned Water Supply Organisations (COWSOs). They have been established through the local government framework of village councils following the adoption of the Water Sector Development Strategy. Out of 10,639 villages, 8,394 had a Water Committee dealing with issues in the water and sanitation sector as of 2007. The role of COWSOs is to operate and maintain the water supply systems on behalf of the community. They are expected to meet all the costs of operating and maintaining their water supply systems through charges levied on water consumers, and to contribute to the capital cost of their systems. The main source of capital investment are block grants to local government authorities, disbursed by the Regional Secretariat. There are two main types of COWSOs: Water Consumer Associations (Vikundi vya Huduma ya Maji), who are responsible for drinking water supply, and Water User Associations (Vikundi vya Watumiaji Maji), who are responsible for water resources and for solving conflicts among water users. As of 2006, 121 Water User Associations have been established.

Example:Hai district. In the Hai District

Hai District

Hai is one of the six districts of the Kilimanjaro Region of Tanzania. It is bordered to the south and west by the Arusha Region, to the north by Kenya, and to the east by the Moshi Rural and Rombo Districts....

in the Kilimanjaro Region

Kilimanjaro Region

Kilimanjaro is one of the 26 regions in Tanzania. The capital of the region is Moshi. Kilimanjaro region is home to Mount Kilimanjaro.Kilimanjaro Region is bordered to the North and East by Kenya, to the South by the Tanga Region, to the Southwest by the Manyara Region, and to the West by the...

200,000 people in 55 villages are served by gravity systems from sources in the rainforest on the slopes of Mount Kilimandjaro. Until the early 1990s the water systems were in bad shape: Local communities did not maintain the infrastructure, water quality was poor and some systems even failed to provide any water. The national water policies of 1991 and 2002, which emphasized local participation and ownership as well as payment for water and metering, turned the situation around. Together with investments financed as part of development cooperation with Germany the new approach achieved substantial improvements. It benefited from a strong local tradition of self-help. Water systems are now operated and maintained by employees of water supply trusts - the local name for a COWSO. Each trust has ten members, half of which have to by women by law, who are elected by the communities. They set tariffs, manage their own budgets and hire managers for each water system. The managers in turn supervise technicians and accountants employed by the water committee. Water is sold at public taps by tap agents or provided to metered house connections. An evaluation in 2002 showed that the incidence of waterborne diseases had declined substantially compared to the early 1990s and that costs were more than fully recovered. As of 2009, water supply remained continuous and water quality good. The water committees remained financially sustainabile with more than 90% of the customers paying their water bills.

Civil society

Civil society actors also participate in the water and sanitation sector. In 2008 they have set up TaWaSaNet, a network that aims at strengthening civil society participation in the water and sanitation and securing that policies are carried out in an equitable way. Among the NGOs active in the Tanzanian water sector (and mentioned in a report by MoWI

Ministry of Water and Irrigation, Tanzania

) are: WaterAid

WaterAid

, The Netherlands Development Organisation

SNV Netherlands Development Organisation

SNV Netherlands Development Organisation is a non-profit, international development organisation, established in the Netherlands in 1965.SNV aims to alleviate poverty by enabling increased income and employment opportunities and increasing access to basic services...

(SNV);Concern Worldwide

Concern Worldwide

Concern Worldwide is Ireland's largest aid and humanitarian agency. Since its foundation over 40 years ago it has worked in 50 countries and currently employs 3,200 staff in 25 countries around the world. Concern works to help those living in the world's poorest countries to achieve real and...

, Plan International, WWF

World Wide Fund for Nature

The World Wide Fund for Nature is an international non-governmental organization working on issues regarding the conservation, research and restoration of the environment, formerly named the World Wildlife Fund, which remains its official name in Canada and the United States...

, Shahidi wa Maji and Daraja.

Investment planning and decision-making

Water investment planning for rural areas is done at the district level by the respective water departments. In 2009 the NGO WaterAid

WaterAid

studied the local government planning process for water investments in four of the country's 99 rural districts, namely in Mpwapwa

Mpwapwa

Mpwapwa is a market town, in the Dodoma Region of Tanzania.-Overview:It is one of the oldest colonial districts in Tanzania, boasting local German colonial government headquarters, or bomas, in the early 1890s, and British administrative offices after World War I...

, Kongwa

Kongwa

Kongwa is one of the 5 districts of the Dodoma Region of Tanzania. It is bordered to the North by the Manyara Region, to the East by the Morogoro Region, to the South by the Mpwapwa District and to the West by the Dodoma Rural District....

, Iramba

Iramba

Iramba is one of the four districts of the Singida Region of central Tanzania. It is bordered to the Northwest by the Shinyanga Region, to the Northeast by the Manyara Region, to the South by the Singida Rural and Singida Urban Districts and to the West by the Tabora Region.According to the 2002...

and Nzega

Nzega

Nzega is one of the six districts of the Tabora Region of Tanzania. It is bordered to the north and west by the Shinyanga Region, to the south and southwest by the Uyui District and to the east by the Igunga District....

. Planning begins with long wish-lists based on demands from the village level. Since real priorities are difficult to identify, one selection criterion used is the balance of money held in the village water fund. This is seen as a sign of community ownership and can be easily explained to councillors and villagers. Other purported criteria are health statistics and data collected from a waterpoint mapping exercise, but they are not given high priority in practice. Selection is done in such a way that water projects are equally divided between the constituencies of the district’s Members of Parliament. Furthermore, councilors steer projects to villages in their wards, with more dynamic councillors exerting greater influence. Another de facto criterion is the previous track record in caring for infrastructure: In some areas handpumps have been stolen, making it hard to justify new investments. Communities close to town, located on main roads or with existing social services have an advantage in the decision-making process, since officials visit them more often and the cost of providing infrastructure is lower. The WaterAid report suggests that if there was better availability of data on rural water supply infrastructure this could help the representatives of underserved communities to lobby on behalf of their constituents.

Public opinion

The Afrobarometer

Afrobarometer

The Afrobarometer is a research project that measures public attitudes on economic, political, and social matters in sub-Saharan Africa.It is carried out through a partnership of the Institute for Democracy in South Africa , the Ghana Center for Democratic Development , and the Department of...

Survey 2008 collected information about Tanzanians' opinions about the water sector. The disparity in access to safe and clean water between rural and urban areas is illustrated by the responses: 51% of urban residents were satisfied with government efforts to deliver water and sanitation services, compared to 39% in rural areas. Accordingly, the water sector is considered as a higher priority for government action by rural Tanzanians. 44% of respondents in rural areas cited water supply as one of the three most pressing issues that the government should address (for 16% it is the single most important problem). In urban areas water supply came third behind economic and health concerns in 25% of responses. Issues of corruption in the water sector were also examined by the Survey: 4% of respondents admitted that they had to pay a bribe, give a gift, or do a favor to government officials in order to get water or sanitation services in the past year.

Economic efficiency

Some common indicators of the economic efficiency of water and sewerage utilities are billing efficiency, the level of non-revenue water

Non-revenue water

Non revenue water is water that has been produced and is “lost” before it reaches the customer. Losses can be real losses or apparent losses . High levels of NRW are detrimental to the financial viability of water utilities, as well to the quality of water itself...

and labour productivity. On the basis of these indicators the economic efficiency of urban service provision in the water sector in Tanzania is low.

Billing efficiency. Government data indicated that urban water utilities have relatively high levels of billing efficiency (never below 70%). However, a Public Expenditure Review in 2009 reported that 15% of the revenues of the 20 largest utilities regulated by EWURA is not collected.

Non-revenue water. The average level of non-revenue water

Non-revenue water

among the 20 regional water utilities was 45% in fiscal year 2006-2007. Data reported by the Ministry of Water and Irrigation in 2009 show that non-revenue water in urban areas varies between 55% in Dar es Salaam and 25% in Tanga. It is estimated that non-revenue water is higher in small and district towns.

Labour productivity. On average, there were 10 staff members per 1000 water connections in the large water utilities as of 2007. The lowest number in Tanzanian UWSSAs is 6 employees per 1000 connections, obtained in Tanga

Tanga, Tanzania

, Mbeya

Mbeya

Mbeya is a city located in southwest Tanzania, Africa. Mbeya's urban population was 280,000 in 2005. Mbeya is the capital of the surrounding rural Mbeya region ....

and Arusha

Arusha

. This is close to the average for Sub-Saharan Africa which is 5 employees.

Tariffs and cost recovery

The national water policy NAWAPO identifies utilities as commercial entities that provide an economic and social good. It thus promotes operational and maintenance (O&M) cost recovery as basis for sustainable services. Rural Water and Sanitation Authorities are expected to meet full O&M costs and 5% of capital costs. Urban Water and Sanitation Authorities are divided in three categories according to their performance in cost recovery:

category A: authorities that cover all O&M costs, including staff wages, energy costs and some contributions to investment;
category B: authorities that meet O&M costs, share energy costs with the government and are able to pay full salaries to permanent employees;
category C: authorities that require government support to meet their energy costs and to pay out salaries to permanent employees.

This system was designed to act as an incentive for utilities to improve their performance. According to MoWI, 14 out of the 20 regional UWSSAs fall into category A, 4 are classified as B while utilities in Babati

Babati

and Lindi

Lindi

are in category C. The results of a study by Tobias A. Swai of the University of Dar es Salaam, however, indicated that Category A UWSSAs are the least efficient although they are self sustaining. EWURA data also point out that two out of the twenty regional utilities have an operating cost coverage ratio significantly higher than one, which means that they can sustain the current service level. Seven other utilities only just manage to keep their current operations running.

Tariff levels are set at the local level, but need to be approved by the national-level regulatory agency EWURA. In urban areas, UWSSAs determine tariffs according to their funding requirements and the category in which they operate. In water supply schemes run by Local Government Authorities, tariff levels are determined by the respective District Council, but without specific targets of cost coverage. Tariffs are generally low and have not been revised in the last years. In Dar es Salaam the average water tariff in 2008 was TZ599 or US$0.46 per m³. Lindi had the highest average water tariff: TZS833 or US$0.64 per m³. The average urban water tariff was TZS437,4 equivalent to US$0.34 per m³.

UWSSAs carry out water metering. In Arusha

Arusha

, Dodoma

Dodoma

Dodoma , officially Dodoma Urban District, population 324,347 , is the national capital of Tanzania, and the capital of the Dodoma region. In 1973, plans were made to move the capital to Dodoma...

, Moshi

Moshi

, Mwanza

Mwanza

Mwanza is a mid-sized port city on the southern shores of Lake Victoria in northwestern Tanzania. With an urban population of 1.2 million and a metropolitan population of 2 million, it is Tanzania's second largest city, following Dar es Salaam and ahead of other major Tanzanian cities of Arusha,...

and Tanga

Tanga, Tanzania

100% of household connections are reported as metered. The figures are above 50% in eleven other cities, with Lindi

Lindi

performing worst with 26% of metered connections. As of 2008 there were in total over 331,000 metered household connections in the territory served by regional utilities (the figure almost doubled compared to 2007 - about 169,000 metered connections). The maintenance of water meters and the associated costs have been identified by MoWI as one of the pressing problems for urban water suppliers.

Concerning affordability, an analysis of the 2007 household budget survey shows that the wealthiest quintile of Tanzanians spends more than 4000 Tanzanian Shilling (US$3.10) per month for water, corresponding to about 1 percent of their income. Those in the poorest quintile spend only about 1000 Tanzanian Shilling (US$0.77) per month for water, but this represents 4.5 percent of their income. One of the reasons why the poor spend less in absolute terms on water is that they fetch water for free from wells and streams. The data are not differentiated between rural and urban areas, although it is likely that the urban poor who have no access to free water sources pay much more for water than those in rural areas.

Investment and financing

Current investments. According to MoWI, the total budget for the water and sanitation sector in fiscal year 2008-2009 was 286.5 billion Tanzanian Shilling

Tanzanian shilling

The shilingi is the currency of Tanzania, although widespread use of U.S. dollars is accepted. It is subdivided into 100 senti .The Tanzanian shilling replaced the East African shilling in 1966 at par....

, equivalent to US$220 million. Of these, US$175 million were actually spent. The budget approved for fiscal year 2009-2010 is TZS309.6 billion, or US$238 million. 40.1% has been allocated to rural water and sanitation and 43.9% to urban water and sewerage. Water resources management and institutional development and capacity building have been allocated 8.5% and 7.4% of the budget respectively.

The Public Expenditure Report of the Water Sector provides a detailed analysis of the patterns of budget spending. It appears that in the water sector large part of the budget is made up of development expenditures and only 15% are recurrent expenditures (compared to the 55% share of development expenditures in the total government budget). Moreover, as a result of the decentralization policy of the government, the budget allocated to local government authorities and regions

Regions of Tanzania

has increased rapidly. In fiscal year 2008-2009 LGAs had a share in the total water sector budget of about 25%, while the figure was 20% for regions. Conversely, an increasing part of central government budget is devoted to feasibility studies: this reflects the co-ordinating and policy setting role to which MoWI is shifting.

Financing. Tanzania is one of the largest recipient countries of foreign aid in Sub-Saharan Africa. This includes assistance in the form of grants, concessional loans and debt relief. Aid management in Tanzania is guided by the Joint Assistance Strategy (JAST) approved in 2006 and aimed at implementing the principles of the Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness. JAST advocates the integration of all development funds into the government budget, fosters national ownership and promotes a "division of labour" between donors. The Public Expenditure Report however suggests that not all
spending in the water sector is included in the government budget. A comparison between OECD and MoFEA bilateral data shows that there is a gap between the two. This indicates that there has been off-budget financing of about 26% of total bilateral aid in the past five years. According to data published by MoWI, of the funds budgeted for the water and sanitation sector for fiscal year 2009-2010, about 88% will be provided from foreign transfers.

External cooperation

Tanzania receives external support from several donor agencies. They are organised in the Development Partners Group (DPG) which aims to improve donor harmonisation and aid effectiveness

Aid effectiveness

Aid effectiveness is the effectiveness of development aid in achieving economic or human development . Aid agencies are always looking for new ways to improve aid effectiveness, including conditionality, capacity building and support for improved governance.-Historical background:The international...

. Sector dialogue between DPG and the Ministries responsible for water is carried out through four thematic working groups that cover water, sanitation and hygiene issues.

The five major donors in the Tanzanian water and sanitation sector are: the African Development Bank

African Development Bank

The African Development Bank Group is a development bank established in 1964 with the intention of promoting economic and social development in Africa...

, the European Commission

European Commission

The European Commission is the executive body of the European Union. The body is responsible for proposing legislation, implementing decisions, upholding the Union's treaties and the general day-to-day running of the Union....

, Germany, the Netherlands and the World Bank

World Bank

The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans to developing countries for capital programmes.The World Bank's official goal is the reduction of poverty...

. Within the scope of JAST, the Government of Tanzania the World Bank

World Bank

The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans to developing countries for capital programmes.The World Bank's official goal is the reduction of poverty...

, Germany, and the Dutch government contribute to the WSDP Basket Fund which is a form of a Sector-Wide Approach

Sector-Wide Approach

Sector-Wide Approach is an approach to international development that "brings together governments, donors and other stakeholders within any sector. It is characterized by a set of operating principles rather than a specific package of policies or activities...

(SWAp). Other donors include: French AFD

French Development Agency

French Development Agency is the French international development agency.The Agence Française de Développement is a public institution providing development financing...

, Japanese JICA

JICA

KF3 is a kart racing class for top drivers aged 12 to 15 .This class used to be called Junior Intercontinental A and has changed since January 2007 when CIK-FIA decided to replace the 100 cc air-cooled two-stroke engines with 125 cc Touch-and-Go water-cooled two-stroke...

, Belgium, Switzerland, UK (DFID), USA (USAID and MCC

Millennium Challenge Corporation

The Millennium Challenge Corporation is a bilateral United States foreign aid agency created by the George W. Bush administration in 2004, applying a new philosophy towards foreign aid.-Background and formation:...

African Development Bank

The African Development Bank

African Development Bank

The African Development Bank Group is a development bank established in 1964 with the intention of promoting economic and social development in Africa...

(AfDB) is present in the Tanzanian water and sanitation sector with three projects. Dar Es Salaam Water Supply & Sanitation, initiated in 2001, focuses on improving the accessibility, quality and reliability of water supply and sanitation in Dar es Salaam

Dar es Salaam

. The Monduli District Water Supply Project was approved in 2003 with the aim of securing adequate and sustainable access to safe drinking water to the population of eighteen villages in Monduli District. AfDB provided a grant of about US$10 million that covered 90% of the project costs. Since 2006, the AfDB together with other donors is contributing to the Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Program. The program aims at improving rural communities' access to water and sanitation services and improving institutional capacity - both at district and government level - to carry out demand based rural water and sanitation projects.

European Commission

The European Commission

European Commission

provides support to the Tanzanian water and sanitation sector through the resources of the European Development Fund National Indicative Programme (NIP) and the EU Water Initiative. At the end of 2008, thirteen projects co-funded by the Water Initiative were under implementation, for a total of €20.08 million.
EU cooperation in the water and sanitation sector focuses on poor populations in urban and peri-urban areas.
Between 2003 and 2007, the EU committed round €33 million to the Water Supply Programme to Regional Centres, jointly financed by German financial cooperation. The main objective of the programme was to improve the access to sustainable quality water supply and wastewater management services in the three regional centres of Mwanza

Mwanza

, Iringa

Iringa

Iringa is a city in Tanzania with a population of 112,900 . It is situated at a latitude of 7.77°S and longitude of 35.69°E. The name is derived from the Hehe word lilinga, meaning fort....

and Mbeya

Mbeya

Mbeya is a city located in southwest Tanzania, Africa. Mbeya's urban population was 280,000 in 2005. Mbeya is the capital of the surrounding rural Mbeya region ....

. Further funds of about €6.6 million were provided for the Mwanza Sewerage Rehabilitation Project between 2000 and 2004, whose aim was to prevent the overflow of raw sewage from Mwanza to Lake Victoria

Lake Victoria

Lake Victoria is one of the African Great Lakes. The lake was named for Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, by John Hanning Speke, the first European to discover this lake....

. Rural water and sanitation is supported through the EU general budget line for co-financing NGOs in developing countries.

Germany

Since the 1970s, Germany has been cooperating with the Government of Tanzania in its attempts to improve the water supply and sanitation situation in the country. German Development cooperation is carried out mainly by KfW

KFW

KFW may refer to:*Keith Fullerton Whitman , an American musician*KfW or Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau, a German public-sector financial institution...

and GTZ, as well as by DED

Deutscher Entwicklungsdienst

The Deutscher Entwicklungsdienst was a German development organization active between 1963 and 2010. It was one of the leading European development services for personnel cooperation. It was focused on sending professional Germans to work in developing countries on small development projects...

and InWent. Between 2007 and 2009, KfW provided EUR17.25 million for the Water Basket. In addition, KfW is active in several national and regional projects in Tanzania. For example, in 2003 KfW provided EUR21 million for the project Supporting Regional Center's Water Supply and Sewerage in the rapidly growing towns of Mbeya

Mbeya

Mbeya is a city located in southwest Tanzania, Africa. Mbeya's urban population was 280,000 in 2005. Mbeya is the capital of the surrounding rural Mbeya region ....

and Mwanza

Mwanza

. A feasibility study and investment plan were also prepared for Iringa

Iringa

Iringa is a city in Tanzania with a population of 112,900 . It is situated at a latitude of 7.77°S and longitude of 35.69°E. The name is derived from the Hehe word lilinga, meaning fort....

, where implementation begun in 2006. The objective of the project was to improve the water supply, sanitation and sewerage services by strengthening the capacity of autonomous urban water supply authorities. To achieve this, water supply facilities have been extended and rehabilitated, sanitation facilitates have been upgraded and capacity building measures have been carried out, including improvement of IT systems used for billing.

GTZ develops local capacities in the sector, including in the Ministry, EWURA and in commercial service providers, such as those in Tanga

Tanga, Tanzania

and in Kilimanjaro Region

Kilimanjaro Region

The Netherlands

The Government of the Netherlands provides funding for the WSDP Water Basket (through a mandate to KfW

Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau

KfW banking group is a German government-owned development bank, based in Frankfurt. Its name originally comes from Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau, meaning Reconstruction Credit Institute. It was formed in 1948 after World War II as part of the Marshall Plan.It is owned by the Federal Republic of...

). In addition, the Netherlands Development Organisation

SNV Netherlands Development Organisation

(SNV) provides support in three main areas of the water and sanitation sector: (a) improving the functionality of existing water points through water point mapping (carried out in cooperation with WaterAid

WaterAid

), (b) support to water, sanitation and hygiene activities in schools, and (c) capacity building in IWRM.

World Bank

The World Bank

World Bank

The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans to developing countries for capital programmes.The World Bank's official goal is the reduction of poverty...

provides extensive support to Tanzania. In December 2009, it approved the Seventh Poverty Reduction Support Credit (PRSC): the fourth in a series of five annual budget support operations to the implementation of MKUKUTA. The Seventh PRSC entailed a commitment of US$ 170 million. In the water sector, the World Bank committed US$ 200 million to the Water Sector Support Project for the years 2007 to 2012. The project has four components: a) strengthening institutional capacity for improving the management of water resources; b) providing support to local governments in the scaling up of the provision of rural water and sanitation services in pursuit of the MDGs; c) giving support to Dar es Salaam, all regional and district capitals, and gazetted small town utilities in the scaling up of provision of urban water and sanitation services; and d) providing support in istitutional capacity building, including sector coordination and policy re-alignment.

The World Bank-administered Water and Sanitation Program is also active in Tanzania where it provides support in the areas of sanitation and hygiene.

External links

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