West Trans–New Guinea languages
Encyclopedia
The West Trans–New Guinea languages are a suggested linguistic linkage
of Papuan languages
, not well established as a group, proposed by Malcolm Ross
in his 2005 classification of the Trans–New Guinea languages. Ross suspects they are an old dialect continuum
, because they share numerous features that have not been traced to a single ancestor using comparative historical linguistics. The internal divisions of the languages are also unclear. William Foley
considers the TNG identity of the Irian Highlands languages at least to be established.
and Paniai Lakes
) appear to belong together, and the Timor and West Bomberai languages
share two probable innovations in their pronouns, compared to the rest of TNG. However, the languages of Timor are essentially a set of language isolates, and the western branch especially is not well supported as a valid family. It can be expected therefore that the membership and internal classification of West Trans–New Guinea will continue to be revised.
Families that are clearly valid, including isolates, are listed here in boldface.
Fataluku has high dialect diversity, and may be more than a single language, for example with Rusenu
. An additional Makuv'a
(Lovaea) branch was once assumed for East Timor, but that appears to be a heavily Papuan-influenced Austronesian language.
The Savu languages (Hawu
and Dhao
) appear to be non-Austronesian, but do not align with the languages of Timor and Alor. Indeed, most of the languages of East Nusa Tenggara
and Maluku
appear to have some non-Austronesian influence.
Arthur Capell
first proposed that the Timor languages were a family in 1941, and Watuseke & Anceaux did the same for Timor–Alor–Pantar in 1973. Both units have been broken up in more recent classifications, though their ultimate relationship is generally accepted.
In 1957 HKL Cowan linked the Timor languages to the West Papuan
family. However, when Stephen Wurm
expanded Trans–New Guinea in 1975, he decided Timor–Alor–Pantar belonged there, and he linked it to the South Bird's Head languages
in a South Bird's Head – Timor–Alor–Pantar branch of that phylum. Wurm noted similarities with West Papuan, a different family, but suggested this was due to substratum influence.
Of the Irian Highlands families, Capell linked the Dani languages to Kwerba in 1962. Wurm added Dani-Kwerba, the Wissel Lakes (Paniai Lakes) languages, and South Bomberai to TNG as separate branches of that family. Ross (2005) suggests a possible link between Dani and Paniai with his West TNG proposal, but excludes South Bird's Head as a separate branch of TNG, and Kwerba as belonging to a different family altogether. He did not note any connections to West Papuan.
Linkage (linguistics)
In linguistics, a linkage is a group of undoubtedly related languages for which no proto-language can be reconstructed. Malcolm Ross, who coined the term, defined it as “a group of communalects which have arisen by dialect differentiation” ....
of Papuan languages
Papuan languages
The Papuan languages are those languages of the western Pacific which are neither Austronesian nor Australian. The term does not presuppose a genetic relationship. The concept of Papuan peoples as distinct from Melanesians was first suggested and named by Sidney Herbert Ray in 1892.-The...
, not well established as a group, proposed by Malcolm Ross
Malcolm Ross
Malcolm David Ross is a linguist and professor at the Australian National University. He has published work on Austronesian and Papuan languages, historical linguistics, and language contact.-External links:**...
in his 2005 classification of the Trans–New Guinea languages. Ross suspects they are an old dialect continuum
Dialect continuum
A dialect continuum, or dialect area, was defined by Leonard Bloomfield as a range of dialects spoken across some geographical area that differ only slightly between neighboring areas, but as one travels in any direction, these differences accumulate such that speakers from opposite ends of the...
, because they share numerous features that have not been traced to a single ancestor using comparative historical linguistics. The internal divisions of the languages are also unclear. William Foley
William Foley
William Foley is an American linguist and professor at the University of Sydney. He specialises in Papuan and Austronesian languages. He is perhaps best known for his 1986 book The Papuan Languages of New Guinea and his partnership with Robert Van Valin in the development of role and reference...
considers the TNG identity of the Irian Highlands languages at least to be established.
Classification
The West Trans–New Guinea languages are a group of small families and isolates within Trans–New Guinea which are only tentatively connected. The Irian Highlands families (DaniDani languages
The Dani languages are a family of clearly related Trans–New Guinea languages spoken by the Dani and related peoples in the highlands of Irian Jaya. Foley considers their TNG status to be established. They may be most closely related to the languages of Paniai Lakes, but this is not yet clear...
and Paniai Lakes
Paniai Lakes languages
The Paniai Lakes languages, also known by the older name Wissel Lakes languages, are a small family of closely related Trans–New Guinea languages spoken in the highlands of Irian Jaya in the Paniai district...
) appear to belong together, and the Timor and West Bomberai languages
West Bomberai languages
The West Bomberai languages are a small family of Papuan languages spoken on the Bomberai Peninsula of western New Guinea. Two of the languages are closely related; the third is more distant and was only recently added to the family.* Karas isolate...
share two probable innovations in their pronouns, compared to the rest of TNG. However, the languages of Timor are essentially a set of language isolates, and the western branch especially is not well supported as a valid family. It can be expected therefore that the membership and internal classification of West Trans–New Guinea will continue to be revised.
Families that are clearly valid, including isolates, are listed here in boldface.
- West Trans–New Guinea linkage.
- West Timor – Alor–Pantar [not well supported as a group]
- AdabeAdabe languageAdabe is a Papuan language spoken by the Adabe people on Atauro Island, East Timor. It has also been known as Ataura and Raklu-Un ....
isolate - BunakBunak languageThe Bunak language is the language of the Bunak people of the mountainous region of central Timor, split between the political boundary between West Timor, Indonesia, particularly in Lamaknen District and East Timor...
isolate - Kolana isolate
- TanglapuiTanglapui languagesThe Tanglapui languages are a pair of closely related Papuan languages,spoken on the island of Alor, of the coast of Timor in Indonesia. They have only marginal mutual intelligibility, and are ethnically distinct. The name 'Tanglapui' is used for either language....
family - Alor–Pantar family
- Adabe
- East Timor [perhaps closest to West Bomberai]
- FatalukuFataluku languageFataluku is a Papuan language spoken by approximately 30,000 people of Fataluku ethnicity in the eastern areas of East Timor, especially around Lospalos. It is a Papuan language, and is usually considered a Trans–New Guinea language...
isolate - Oirata isolate
- Makasai isolate
- Fataluku
- West Bomberai [perhaps closest to East Timor]
- KarasKaras languageKaras is a divergent Trans–New Guinea language spoken on Karas Island off the Bomberai Peninsula, that appears to be most closely related to the West Bomberai languages....
isolate - West BomberaiWest Bomberai languagesThe West Bomberai languages are a small family of Papuan languages spoken on the Bomberai Peninsula of western New Guinea. Two of the languages are closely related; the third is more distant and was only recently added to the family.* Karas isolate...
family
- Karas
- Paniai LakesPaniai Lakes languagesThe Paniai Lakes languages, also known by the older name Wissel Lakes languages, are a small family of closely related Trans–New Guinea languages spoken in the highlands of Irian Jaya in the Paniai district...
(Wissel Lakes) family [perhaps in an Irian Highlands branch] - DaniDani languagesThe Dani languages are a family of clearly related Trans–New Guinea languages spoken by the Dani and related peoples in the highlands of Irian Jaya. Foley considers their TNG status to be established. They may be most closely related to the languages of Paniai Lakes, but this is not yet clear...
family [perhaps in an Irian Highlands branch]
- West Timor – Alor–Pantar [not well supported as a group]
Fataluku has high dialect diversity, and may be more than a single language, for example with Rusenu
Rusenu language
Rusenu is a recently discovered , essentially extinct Papuan language formerly spoken in Eastern East Timor.Rusenu was discovered quite accidentally...
. An additional Makuv'a
Makuv'a language
Makuv'a, also spelled Makua and also known as Lovaea , is a nearly extinct Austronesian language spoken at the northeast tip of East Timor near the town of Tutuala....
(Lovaea) branch was once assumed for East Timor, but that appears to be a heavily Papuan-influenced Austronesian language.
The Savu languages (Hawu
Hawu language
The Hawu Havu language, historically Sawu and known to outsiders as Savu or Sabu , is the language of Savu Island in Indonesia and of Raijua Island off the western tip of Savu. Traditionally classified as a Sumba language in the Austronesian family, it may actually be a non-Austronesian language...
and Dhao
Dhao language
The Dhao language, better known to outsiders by its Rotinese name Ndao , is the language of Ndao Island in Indonesia. Traditionally classified as a Sumba language in the Austronesian family, it may actually be a non-Austronesian language...
) appear to be non-Austronesian, but do not align with the languages of Timor and Alor. Indeed, most of the languages of East Nusa Tenggara
East Nusa Tenggara
East Nusa Tenggara is a province of Indonesia, located in the eastern portion of the Lesser Sunda Islands, including West Timor. The provincial capital is Kupang, located on West Timor...
and Maluku
Maluku Islands
The Maluku Islands are an archipelago that is part of Indonesia, and part of the larger Maritime Southeast Asia region. Tectonically they are located on the Halmahera Plate within the Molucca Sea Collision Zone...
appear to have some non-Austronesian influence.
History of the proposal
Despite their geographic proximity, the Papuan languages of Timor are not closely related, and demonstration of a relationship between any of them is difficult, apart from the clearly related Alor–Pantar languages on the islands neighboring Timor.Arthur Capell
Arthur Capell
Arthur Capell was an Australian linguist, who made major contributions to the study of Australian languages, Austronesian languages and Papuan languages.-Life:...
first proposed that the Timor languages were a family in 1941, and Watuseke & Anceaux did the same for Timor–Alor–Pantar in 1973. Both units have been broken up in more recent classifications, though their ultimate relationship is generally accepted.
In 1957 HKL Cowan linked the Timor languages to the West Papuan
West Papuan languages
The West Papuan languages are a hypothetical language family of about two dozen Papuan languages of the Bird's Head Peninsula of far western New Guinea and the island of Halmahera, spoken by about 220 000 people in all....
family. However, when Stephen Wurm
Stephen Wurm
Stephen Adolphe Wurm was a Hungarian-born Australian linguist.- Biography :Wurm was born in Budapest, the second child to the German-speaking Adolphe Wurm and Hungarian-speaking Anna Novroczky, and was christened Istvan Adolphe Wurm...
expanded Trans–New Guinea in 1975, he decided Timor–Alor–Pantar belonged there, and he linked it to the South Bird's Head languages
South Bird's Head languages
The South Bird's Head or South Doberai languages are a well-established family of Papuan languages. They form part of the Trans–New Guinea languages in the classification of Malcolm Ross.* South Bird's Head family...
in a South Bird's Head – Timor–Alor–Pantar branch of that phylum. Wurm noted similarities with West Papuan, a different family, but suggested this was due to substratum influence.
Of the Irian Highlands families, Capell linked the Dani languages to Kwerba in 1962. Wurm added Dani-Kwerba, the Wissel Lakes (Paniai Lakes) languages, and South Bomberai to TNG as separate branches of that family. Ross (2005) suggests a possible link between Dani and Paniai with his West TNG proposal, but excludes South Bird's Head as a separate branch of TNG, and Kwerba as belonging to a different family altogether. He did not note any connections to West Papuan.