Western stereotype of the male ballet dancer
Encyclopedia
Since the early 19th century, Western society has adopted a negative view of male ballet
dancers, or danseurs. Danseurs are stereotyped as weak, effeminate
, homosexual
or unnatural.
This belief began in the early 19th century at the emergence of Romanticism
. The stereotype was not derived from homophobia
, though the former is often confused for the latter.
, and the danseur gradually faded into the shadows. Romanticism was a revolt against the Age of Enlightenment
. According to dance scholar Carol Lee, 19th-century ballet was "the perfect expression of Romanticism". Ballets turned to folklore, legends, myths, and superstitions for inspiration. They told stories of nymph
s and sylph
s, innocent maidens and Satanic witches. Composers and choreographers were inspired by pure human emotions and a fascination for the macabre
. Ballets such as Giselle
and La Sylphide
emerged during this time.
The heart of this new content was the ballerina. The danseur was demoted to the position of carrier for the star ballerina. He was only there to emphasize her beauty and talent. Women dominated the ballet for the first time in history. The Romantic content focused on the ballerina, pushing the danseur into the background. Audiences wanted to see the ethereal, airy grace of the ballerina.
Training and technique turned to ballerinas as well. Fewer and fewer men were being trained in ballet. By the mid-19th-century, the number of men enrolled in professional ballet schools in Western Europe
dramatically decreased. This scarcity forced ballerinas to begin playing danseurs’ roles. This practice of taking on roles meant for dancers of the opposite gender was called dancing en travestie
According to dance scholar Ramsay Burt, the audience was put off by “his resembling the rude prowess of the working classes”. Romantic critic Jules Janin
stated, "..I know nothing more abominable in the world than a danseur. Under no circumstances do I recognize a man’s right to dance in public".
In the Romantic Era, ballet developed sexual connotations for many men. The focus shifted to the female body and while the choreography
was meant to create art
, it also provided a more exclusive way to objectify women discreetly. Having men on the stage disrupted the male audience’s sexual evaluation of the performance.
The danseur also presented another problem for male viewers. The ballerina now had sexual connotations, which leaked into one’s appreciation of the male dancer. Burt explains the dilemma, "...the ways that male dancers appeared on stage became a source of anxiety to bourgeois male spectators. To enjoy the spectacle of men dancing [was] to be interested in men”. Thus the “pleasures of watching men dancing became ... marred by anxieties about masculine identity." Much of the audience now wanted the ballet stage rid of male performers.
Additionally, since the focus on the ballerina was so heavily associated with the new ideals of the time, the danseur with his stiff dominance was a reminder of the pre-Romantic ballet, and thus, Burt asserts, “the aristocrats who had been its patrons”.
’s ballet company, The Ballet Russe, in Paris in 1909, Western society saw a powerful re-entry of the male ballet dancer. For several decades now, the pas de deux (‘dance for two’) had been danced by two ballerinas, one en travestie. Included in the premiere show of The Ballet Russe was the Blue Bird pas de deux from Sleeping Beauty, danced by a ballerina and a danseur. One of the ballets performed in the early years of the company was Le Spectre de la rose. This ballet’s content was revolutionary for its time—the main character is male, with the female playing the supporting role.
In 1911, Diaghilev formed a permanent company. One of its members was Vaslav Nijinsky
(1889–1950). A principal danseur in The Ballet Russe, Nijinsky played a large role in the danseur’s return to the stage. His performance in Le Spectre de la rose launched him into stardom, and he became the poster boy for male ballet dancing.
The Ballet Russe was successful and continued performing in Paris in addition to touring other countries, though the company never performed in Russia.
Male dancers began to be better accepted in their choice to perform, but by this time society was too pervaded with the dislike of men displaying qualities deemed ‘effeminate’. Audiences again desired to see male dancers perform, but society still felt uncomfortable to a certain degree.
at Northwestern University in Illinois, approximately 50 percent of male dancers in the United States are either gay or bisexual.
In preparation for their 2009 anthology on masculinity and dance, Jennifer Fisher and Anthony Shay interviewed several male dancers from different age groups, ethnic backgrounds, and sexualities. In the interviews, the men were asked questions pertaining to the biased Western picture of male dancers such as “Do you think you’re now surrounded by any stereotypes about men and dancing?” and “Are there perceptions about men who dance that you think need changing?
One of the dancers interviewed, Aaron Cota, came up against unfair prejudices but helped dispel them. He took some time off to enter the Marine Corps
. He tells of his fellow Marines’ reaction: "When they found out that [I would be earning a] dance degree, they were like 'What? You’re what?'. They were kind of confused. You just have to explain it to them. When the guys in my unit would see some of the things I’ve done, or they see videos of other people dance, and they’re like, 'Holy crap, how can they do that?' ... and they’re like 'Wow, that’s amazing,' and 'That’s kind of opened my eyes ...'".
Another dancer, David Allan, experienced very negative effects of the stereotype growing up. He tells of the time he performed in his school’s talent show at age eleven, “I was so excited about doing A Dance from David, my first choreography. So, when I came out in my pretty white tights, there was a big roar of laughter.... Later I met some guys in the hallway of my school who were making rude comments ... 'You’re that dancer guy' would turn into being thrown down the stairs."
American-born Texas-based danseur Walter Patrick Bissell
mentions that he was horribly ridiculed as a boy for taking ballet classes. He did his best to keep it secret, but it eventually leaked out and he was in fights with the other children every day for the rest of school days. The same has been said of ballet professionals like Ethan Stiefel
, Sascha Radetsky
, Edward Villella
, among others.
), teens ages 14–18 were found to have strong stereotypical
views. Males who frequently participated in a “sex-inappropriate” athletic activity were perceived as more feminine than those who did not. The study also suggested, “This stereotyping of athletes may have an important impact on the willingness of athletes to participate in certain sports. Likewise, these stereotypes may tend to filter out certain types of potential participants — e.g., macho males ... in athletic activities which are 'inappropriate' for one's gender." Victoria Morgan, a former principal ballerina with the San Francisco Ballet, relates "... I feel there is a stigma attached to ballet in America that doesn't reflect the reality.... This makes it difficult to attract some audience members and boys for ballet companies".
, the main character, played by Richard Gere
, asks his friend why he hides that he is a dancer. The man tells Richard Gere’s character that he was teased, called gay, and beat up as a kid because he danced. There are various examples in the media of men being teased or persecuted because of their choice to be involved in dance. The media teaches that if a man is involved in dance, he must justify his actions or face his masculinity being questioned.
Ballet
Ballet is a type of performance dance, that originated in the Italian Renaissance courts of the 15th century, and which was further developed in France and Russia as a concert dance form. The early portions preceded the invention of the proscenium stage and were presented in large chambers with...
dancers, or danseurs. Danseurs are stereotyped as weak, effeminate
Effeminacy
Effeminacy describes traits in a human male, that are more often associated with traditional feminine nature, behaviour, mannerisms, style or gender roles rather than masculine nature, behaviour, mannerisms, style or roles....
, homosexual
Homosexuality
Homosexuality is romantic or sexual attraction or behavior between members of the same sex or gender. As a sexual orientation, homosexuality refers to "an enduring pattern of or disposition to experience sexual, affectional, or romantic attractions" primarily or exclusively to people of the same...
or unnatural.
This belief began in the early 19th century at the emergence of Romanticism
Romanticism
Romanticism was an artistic, literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Europe, and gained strength in reaction to the Industrial Revolution...
. The stereotype was not derived from homophobia
Homophobia
Homophobia is a term used to refer to a range of negative attitudes and feelings towards lesbian, gay and in some cases bisexual, transgender people and behavior, although these are usually covered under other terms such as biphobia and transphobia. Definitions refer to irrational fear, with the...
, though the former is often confused for the latter.
Female dominance in Romantic ballet
As the Romantic movement erupted in the early 19th century, ballet's focus shifted towards the ballerinaBallerina
A ballerina is a title used to describe a principal female professional ballet dancer in a large company; the male equivalent to this title is danseur or ballerino...
, and the danseur gradually faded into the shadows. Romanticism was a revolt against the Age of Enlightenment
Age of Enlightenment
The Age of Enlightenment was an elite cultural movement of intellectuals in 18th century Europe that sought to mobilize the power of reason in order to reform society and advance knowledge. It promoted intellectual interchange and opposed intolerance and abuses in church and state...
. According to dance scholar Carol Lee, 19th-century ballet was "the perfect expression of Romanticism". Ballets turned to folklore, legends, myths, and superstitions for inspiration. They told stories of nymph
Nymph
A nymph in Greek mythology is a female minor nature deity typically associated with a particular location or landform. Different from gods, nymphs are generally regarded as divine spirits who animate nature, and are usually depicted as beautiful, young nubile maidens who love to dance and sing;...
s and sylph
Sylph
Sylph is a mythological creature in the Western tradition. The term originates in Paracelsus, who describes sylphs as invisible beings of the air, his elementals of air...
s, innocent maidens and Satanic witches. Composers and choreographers were inspired by pure human emotions and a fascination for the macabre
Macabre
In works of art, macabre is the quality of having a grim or ghastly atmosphere. Macabre works emphasize the details and symbols of death....
. Ballets such as Giselle
Giselle
Giselle is a ballet in two acts with a libretto by Jules-Henri Vernoy de Saint-Georges and Théophile Gautier, music by Adolphe Adam, and choreography by Jean Coralli and Jules Perrot. The librettist took his inspiration from a poem by Heinrich Heine...
and La Sylphide
La Sylphide
La Sylphide is one of the world's oldest surviving romantic ballets. There were two versions of the ballet; the version choreographed by the Danish balletmaster August Bournonville is the only version known to have survived....
emerged during this time.
The heart of this new content was the ballerina. The danseur was demoted to the position of carrier for the star ballerina. He was only there to emphasize her beauty and talent. Women dominated the ballet for the first time in history. The Romantic content focused on the ballerina, pushing the danseur into the background. Audiences wanted to see the ethereal, airy grace of the ballerina.
Training and technique turned to ballerinas as well. Fewer and fewer men were being trained in ballet. By the mid-19th-century, the number of men enrolled in professional ballet schools in Western Europe
Western Europe
Western Europe is a loose term for the collection of countries in the western most region of the European continents, though this definition is context-dependent and carries cultural and political connotations. One definition describes Western Europe as a geographic entity—the region lying in the...
dramatically decreased. This scarcity forced ballerinas to begin playing danseurs’ roles. This practice of taking on roles meant for dancers of the opposite gender was called dancing en travestie
Distaste for danseurs in Romantic ballet
Around this time, the French artist Charles Edouard de Beaumont drew a lithograph entitled “The unpleasant thing about a danseuse is that she sometimes brings along a male dancer”. The piece depicts a male and female dancer. The ballerina is lithe and petite. Her partner has a distorted face, large hands, and thick legs. He appears to be off balance. He is an embarrassment in his attempt to be graceful. The piece embodies the negative undertone dancers implied to the bourgeois audience of the time.According to dance scholar Ramsay Burt, the audience was put off by “his resembling the rude prowess of the working classes”. Romantic critic Jules Janin
Jules Janin
Jules Gabriel Janin was a French writer and critic.-Biography:Born in Saint-Étienne , Janin's father was a lawyer, and he was educated first at St. Étienne, and then at the lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris...
stated, "..I know nothing more abominable in the world than a danseur. Under no circumstances do I recognize a man’s right to dance in public".
In the Romantic Era, ballet developed sexual connotations for many men. The focus shifted to the female body and while the choreography
Choreography
Choreography is the art of designing sequences of movements in which motion, form, or both are specified. Choreography may also refer to the design itself, which is sometimes expressed by means of dance notation. The word choreography literally means "dance-writing" from the Greek words "χορεία" ...
was meant to create art
Art
Art is the product or process of deliberately arranging items in a way that influences and affects one or more of the senses, emotions, and intellect....
, it also provided a more exclusive way to objectify women discreetly. Having men on the stage disrupted the male audience’s sexual evaluation of the performance.
The danseur also presented another problem for male viewers. The ballerina now had sexual connotations, which leaked into one’s appreciation of the male dancer. Burt explains the dilemma, "...the ways that male dancers appeared on stage became a source of anxiety to bourgeois male spectators. To enjoy the spectacle of men dancing [was] to be interested in men”. Thus the “pleasures of watching men dancing became ... marred by anxieties about masculine identity." Much of the audience now wanted the ballet stage rid of male performers.
Additionally, since the focus on the ballerina was so heavily associated with the new ideals of the time, the danseur with his stiff dominance was a reminder of the pre-Romantic ballet, and thus, Burt asserts, “the aristocrats who had been its patrons”.
Diaghilev, Nijinsky, and The Ballet Russe
With the opening of Sergei DiaghilevSergei Diaghilev
Sergei Pavlovich Diaghilev , usually referred to outside of Russia as Serge, was a Russian art critic, patron, ballet impresario and founder of the Ballets Russes, from which many famous dancers and choreographers would arise.-Early life and career:...
’s ballet company, The Ballet Russe, in Paris in 1909, Western society saw a powerful re-entry of the male ballet dancer. For several decades now, the pas de deux (‘dance for two’) had been danced by two ballerinas, one en travestie. Included in the premiere show of The Ballet Russe was the Blue Bird pas de deux from Sleeping Beauty, danced by a ballerina and a danseur. One of the ballets performed in the early years of the company was Le Spectre de la rose. This ballet’s content was revolutionary for its time—the main character is male, with the female playing the supporting role.
In 1911, Diaghilev formed a permanent company. One of its members was Vaslav Nijinsky
Vaslav Nijinsky
Vaslav Nijinsky was a Russian ballet dancer and choreographer of Polish descent, cited as the greatest male dancer of the 20th century. He grew to be celebrated for his virtuosity and for the depth and intensity of his characterizations...
(1889–1950). A principal danseur in The Ballet Russe, Nijinsky played a large role in the danseur’s return to the stage. His performance in Le Spectre de la rose launched him into stardom, and he became the poster boy for male ballet dancing.
The Ballet Russe was successful and continued performing in Paris in addition to touring other countries, though the company never performed in Russia.
Male dancers began to be better accepted in their choice to perform, but by this time society was too pervaded with the dislike of men displaying qualities deemed ‘effeminate’. Audiences again desired to see male dancers perform, but society still felt uncomfortable to a certain degree.
Ballet as Cross-Training
In the later parts of the 20th century, it was found that well-known male athletes were known for taking ballet in an attempt to increase cross-training. Ballet is often used for balance, agility, and strength training. Gridiron legends Lynn Swann, Herschel Walker, Barry Sanders and Willie Gault were known for their training. The NBA's Chicago Bulls trained with the Joffrey Ballet during the 1990s.Sexuality
According to a study done by the Department of PsychologyPsychology
Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. Its immediate goal is to understand individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society...
at Northwestern University in Illinois, approximately 50 percent of male dancers in the United States are either gay or bisexual.
Response of male dancers
In a 2003 sociological study, male ballet dancers reported several stereotypes they had been confronted with including "feminine, homosexual, wimp, spoiled, gay, dainty, fragile, weak, fluffy, woosy, prissy, artsy and sissy".In preparation for their 2009 anthology on masculinity and dance, Jennifer Fisher and Anthony Shay interviewed several male dancers from different age groups, ethnic backgrounds, and sexualities. In the interviews, the men were asked questions pertaining to the biased Western picture of male dancers such as “Do you think you’re now surrounded by any stereotypes about men and dancing?” and “Are there perceptions about men who dance that you think need changing?
One of the dancers interviewed, Aaron Cota, came up against unfair prejudices but helped dispel them. He took some time off to enter the Marine Corps
Marine corps
A marine is a member of a force that specializes in expeditionary operations such as amphibious assault and occupation. The marines traditionally have strong links with the country's navy...
. He tells of his fellow Marines’ reaction: "When they found out that [I would be earning a] dance degree, they were like 'What? You’re what?'. They were kind of confused. You just have to explain it to them. When the guys in my unit would see some of the things I’ve done, or they see videos of other people dance, and they’re like, 'Holy crap, how can they do that?' ... and they’re like 'Wow, that’s amazing,' and 'That’s kind of opened my eyes ...'".
Another dancer, David Allan, experienced very negative effects of the stereotype growing up. He tells of the time he performed in his school’s talent show at age eleven, “I was so excited about doing A Dance from David, my first choreography. So, when I came out in my pretty white tights, there was a big roar of laughter.... Later I met some guys in the hallway of my school who were making rude comments ... 'You’re that dancer guy' would turn into being thrown down the stairs."
American-born Texas-based danseur Walter Patrick Bissell
Patrick Bissell
Walter Patrick Bissell was an American ballet dancer. He was a leading principal dancer with the American Ballet Theater...
mentions that he was horribly ridiculed as a boy for taking ballet classes. He did his best to keep it secret, but it eventually leaked out and he was in fights with the other children every day for the rest of school days. The same has been said of ballet professionals like Ethan Stiefel
Ethan Stiefel
Ethan Stiefel is a principal dancer with American Ballet Theatre . His fiance is Gillian Murphy, also a principal dancer with ABT.-Biography:...
, Sascha Radetsky
Sascha Radetsky
Sascha Radetsky is a soloist with the American Ballet Theatre and an actor.He was born in Santa Cruz, California, and began studying ballet in the San Francisco Bay Area. He was invited to study at the Bolshoi Academy in Moscow when he was 15 and after spending a year there, he went to The Kirov...
, Edward Villella
Edward Villella
Edward Villella is an American ballet dancer and choreographer, frequently cited as America's most celebrated male dancer at the time....
, among others.
Effect on participation
In a study done on peer attitudes of participants in “gender specific” sports (i.e. ballet and American footballAmerican football
American football is a sport played between two teams of eleven with the objective of scoring points by advancing the ball into the opposing team's end zone. Known in the United States simply as football, it may also be referred to informally as gridiron football. The ball can be advanced by...
), teens ages 14–18 were found to have strong stereotypical
Stereotype
A stereotype is a popular belief about specific social groups or types of individuals. The concepts of "stereotype" and "prejudice" are often confused with many other different meanings...
views. Males who frequently participated in a “sex-inappropriate” athletic activity were perceived as more feminine than those who did not. The study also suggested, “This stereotyping of athletes may have an important impact on the willingness of athletes to participate in certain sports. Likewise, these stereotypes may tend to filter out certain types of potential participants — e.g., macho males ... in athletic activities which are 'inappropriate' for one's gender." Victoria Morgan, a former principal ballerina with the San Francisco Ballet, relates "... I feel there is a stigma attached to ballet in America that doesn't reflect the reality.... This makes it difficult to attract some audience members and boys for ballet companies".
Appearances in media
In the 2004 movie Shall We DanceShall We Dance? (2004 film)
Shall We Dance? is a 2004 American film. It is a remake of the award-winning Masayuki Suo 1996 Japanese film, Shall We Dance?. The film made its US premier at the Hawaii International Film Festival.-Plot:...
, the main character, played by Richard Gere
Richard Gere
Richard Tiffany Gere is an American actor. He began acting in the 1970s, playing a supporting role in Looking for Mr. Goodbar, and a starring role in Days of Heaven. He came to prominence in 1980 for his role in the film American Gigolo, which established him as a leading man and a sex symbol...
, asks his friend why he hides that he is a dancer. The man tells Richard Gere’s character that he was teased, called gay, and beat up as a kid because he danced. There are various examples in the media of men being teased or persecuted because of their choice to be involved in dance. The media teaches that if a man is involved in dance, he must justify his actions or face his masculinity being questioned.