Willowbrook State School
Encyclopedia
Willowbrook State School was a state-supported institution for children with intellectual disabilities located in the Willowbrook
neighborhood of Staten Island
in New York City
from the 1930s until 1987.
The school was designed for 4,000, but by 1965 it had a population of 6,000. At the time it was the biggest state-run institution for the mentally handicapped in the United States. Conditions and questionable medical practices and experiments prompted Sen. Robert Kennedy to call it a "snake pit."
Public outcry led to its closure in 1987, and to federal civil rights legislation protecting the handicapped.
A portion of the grounds and some of the buildings were incorporated into the campus of the College of Staten Island
, which moved to Willowbrook in the early 1990s. The rest of the buildings sit abandoned and dilapidated in the Staten Island Greenbelt
.
section of Staten Island. Construction was completed in 1942, but instead of opening for its original purpose, it was converted into a United States Army
hospital and named Halloran General Hospital, after the late Colonel Paul Stacey Halloran. After World War II, proposals were introduced to turn the site over to the Veterans Administration
, but in October 1947, the New York State Department of Mental Hygiene
opened its facility there as originally planned, and the institution was named Willowbrook State School.
were common at the school. Virtually all children developed hepatitis within six months, primarily hepatitis A
. This led to a highly controversial medical study carried out there between 1963 and 1966 by medical researchers Saul Krugman
and Robert W. McCollum
. Healthy children were intentionally inoculated, orally and by injection, with the virus that causes the disease, then monitored to gauge the effects of gamma globulin
in combating it. A public outcry forced the study to be discontinued.
, an advocate for mentally disabled children as well as victims of child abuse
, gained access to the school by posing as a recent social work graduate. She then shared her observations with members of the press.
A series of articles in local newspapers, including the Staten Island Advance
and the Staten Island Register
, described the crowded, filthy living conditions at Willowbrook, and the negligent treatment of some of its residents. Shortly thereafter, in early 1972, Geraldo Rivera
, then an investigative reporter for WABC-TV
in New York, conducted a series of investigations at Willowbrook uncovering a host of deplorable conditions, including overcrowding, inadequate sanitary facilities, and physical
and sexual
abuse of residents by members of the school's staff. The exposé, entitled Willowbrook: The Last Disgrace, garnered national attention and won a Peabody Award
for Rivera. Rivera later appeared on the nationally televised Dick Cavett Show with film of patients at the school.
As a result of the overcrowding, a class-action lawsuit was filed against the State of New York in federal court on March 17, 1972. A settlement in the case was reached on May 5, 1975, mandating reforms at the site, but several years would pass before all of the violations were corrected. The publicity generated by the case was a major contributing factor to the passage of a federal law
, the Civil Rights of Institutionalized Persons Act of 1980
.
In 1983, the state of New York announced plans to close Willowbrook, which had been renamed the Staten Island Developmental Center in 1974. By the end of March 1986, the number of residents housed there had dwindled to 250, and the last children left the grounds on September 17, 1987.
After the developmental center closed, the site became the focus of intense local debate about what should be done with the property. In 1989 a portion of the land was acquired by the city of New York, with the intent of using it to establish a new campus for the College of Staten Island, and the new campus opened at Willowbrook in 1993. At 0.8 square kilometres (197.7 acre), this campus is the largest maintained by the City University of New York
.
Within the year, one of CSI's two other existing campuses, located in the Sunnyside
neighborhood, was closed, renovated, and opened in 1995 as the home of a new K-12 Michael J. Petrides School.
The remaining 0.7 square kilometres (173 acre) of the state school's original property, at the south end, is still under the administration of the Office for People with Developmental Disabilities (OPWDD), an agency of the New York State Department of Mental Hygiene, and houses the New York State Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities and the Staten Island Developmental Disabilities Services Office.
On February 25, 1987, the Federal Court
approved the Willowbrook "1987 Stipulation," which set forth guidelines that required OMRDD
community placement for the "Willowbrook Class."
Willowbrook, Staten Island
Willowbrook is a neighborhood in Staten Island, one of the five boroughs of New York City. It is located in the region of the island usually referred to as Mid-Island, immediately to the south of Port Richmond, to the west of Meiers Corners and Westerleigh, to the north of New Springville, and to...
neighborhood of Staten Island
Staten Island
Staten Island is a borough of New York City, New York, United States, located in the southwest part of the city. Staten Island is separated from New Jersey by the Arthur Kill and the Kill Van Kull, and from the rest of New York by New York Bay...
in New York City
New York City
New York is the most populous city in the United States and the center of the New York Metropolitan Area, one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world. New York exerts a significant impact upon global commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education, and...
from the 1930s until 1987.
The school was designed for 4,000, but by 1965 it had a population of 6,000. At the time it was the biggest state-run institution for the mentally handicapped in the United States. Conditions and questionable medical practices and experiments prompted Sen. Robert Kennedy to call it a "snake pit."
Public outcry led to its closure in 1987, and to federal civil rights legislation protecting the handicapped.
A portion of the grounds and some of the buildings were incorporated into the campus of the College of Staten Island
College of Staten Island
The College of Staten Island is a four-year, senior college of and is one of the 11 senior colleges in the City University of New York. Programs in the liberal arts and sciences and professional studies lead to bachelor's and associate's degrees. The master's degree is awarded in 13 professional...
, which moved to Willowbrook in the early 1990s. The rest of the buildings sit abandoned and dilapidated in the Staten Island Greenbelt
Staten Island Greenbelt
The Staten Island Greenbelt is a system of contiguous public parkland and natural areas in the central hills of the New York City borough of Staten Island...
.
Construction and early conversion
In 1938, plans were drawn up to build a facility for mentally disabled children on a 375 acres (1.5 km²) site in the WillowbrookWillowbrook, Staten Island
Willowbrook is a neighborhood in Staten Island, one of the five boroughs of New York City. It is located in the region of the island usually referred to as Mid-Island, immediately to the south of Port Richmond, to the west of Meiers Corners and Westerleigh, to the north of New Springville, and to...
section of Staten Island. Construction was completed in 1942, but instead of opening for its original purpose, it was converted into a United States Army
United States Army
The United States Army is the main branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. It is the largest and oldest established branch of the U.S. military, and is one of seven U.S. uniformed services...
hospital and named Halloran General Hospital, after the late Colonel Paul Stacey Halloran. After World War II, proposals were introduced to turn the site over to the Veterans Administration
United States Department of Veterans Affairs
The United States Department of Veterans Affairs is a government-run military veteran benefit system with Cabinet-level status. It is the United States government’s second largest department, after the United States Department of Defense...
, but in October 1947, the New York State Department of Mental Hygiene
New York State Department of Mental Hygiene
The New York State Department of Mental Hygiene was founded in 1926 as part of a restructuring of the New York state government. This department was given responsibility for people diagnosed with mental retardation, mental illness or epilepsy....
opened its facility there as originally planned, and the institution was named Willowbrook State School.
Hepatitis studies
Throughout the first decade of its operation, outbreaks of hepatitisHepatitis
Hepatitis is a medical condition defined by the inflammation of the liver and characterized by the presence of inflammatory cells in the tissue of the organ. The name is from the Greek hepar , the root being hepat- , meaning liver, and suffix -itis, meaning "inflammation"...
were common at the school. Virtually all children developed hepatitis within six months, primarily hepatitis A
Hepatitis A
Hepatitis A is an acute infectious disease of the liver caused by the hepatitis A virus , an RNA virus, usually spread the fecal-oral route; transmitted person-to-person by ingestion of contaminated food or water or through direct contact with an infectious person...
. This led to a highly controversial medical study carried out there between 1963 and 1966 by medical researchers Saul Krugman
Saul Krugman
Not to be confused with Paul Krugman.Saul Krugman was a medical researcher who discovered a vaccine against hepatitis B.-Early Years and Education:The son of Russian Jewish immigrants, Krugman was born in the Bronx in 1911...
and Robert W. McCollum
Robert W. McCollum
Robert Wayne McCollum, Jr. was an American virologist and epidemiologist who made pioneering studies into the nature and spread of polio, hepatitis and mononucleosis while at the Yale School of Medicine, after which he served for nearly a decade as Dean of the Dartmouth Medical School.-Early life...
. Healthy children were intentionally inoculated, orally and by injection, with the virus that causes the disease, then monitored to gauge the effects of gamma globulin
Gamma globulin
Gamma globulins are a class of globulins, identified by their position after serum protein electrophoresis. The most significant gamma globulins are immunoglobulins , more commonly known as antibodies, although some Igs are not gamma globulins, and some gamma globulins are not Igs.-Use as medical...
in combating it. A public outcry forced the study to be discontinued.
More scandals and abuses
By 1965, Willowbrook housed over 6,000 mentally disabled children, despite having a maximum capacity of 4,000. Senator Robert Kennedy toured the institution in 1965 and proclaimed that individuals in the overcrowded facility were "living in filth and dirt, their clothing in rags, in rooms less comfortable and cheerful than the cages in which we put animals in a zoo" and offered a series of recommendations for improving conditions. Although the hepatitis study had been discontinued, the residential school's reputation was that of a warehouse for New York City's mentally disabled children, many of whom were presumably abandoned there by their families, foster care agencies or other systems designed to care for them. Donna J. StoneDonna J. Stone
Donna J. Stone was an American poet and philanthropist. Several of her poems were published individually, both before and after her death, as well as a book of poetry entitled Wielder of Words: A Collection of Poems. Wielder of Words, edited by Ms...
, an advocate for mentally disabled children as well as victims of child abuse
Child abuse
Child abuse is the physical, sexual, emotional mistreatment, or neglect of a child. In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the Department of Children And Families define child maltreatment as any act or series of acts of commission or omission by a parent or...
, gained access to the school by posing as a recent social work graduate. She then shared her observations with members of the press.
A series of articles in local newspapers, including the Staten Island Advance
Staten Island Advance
The Staten Island Advance is a daily newspaper published in the borough of Staten Island in New York City. The only daily newspaper published in the borough, and the only borough to have its own major daily paper, it covers news of local and community interest, including borough politics. As of...
and the Staten Island Register
Staten Island Register
The Staten Island Register was a weekly newspaper serving the borough of Staten Island in New York City as an independent alternative to other news sources, including the Staten Island Advance. It began publication in 1966 under the ownership of the Sclafani family. Joseph was the Owner...
, described the crowded, filthy living conditions at Willowbrook, and the negligent treatment of some of its residents. Shortly thereafter, in early 1972, Geraldo Rivera
Geraldo Rivera
Geraldo Rivera is an American attorney, journalist, author, reporter, and former talk show host...
, then an investigative reporter for WABC-TV
WABC-TV
WABC-TV, channel 7, is the flagship station of the Disney-owned American Broadcasting Company located in New York City. The station's studios and offices are located on the Upper West Side section of Manhattan, adjacent to ABC's corporate headquarters, and its transmitter is atop the Empire State...
in New York, conducted a series of investigations at Willowbrook uncovering a host of deplorable conditions, including overcrowding, inadequate sanitary facilities, and physical
Physical abuse
Physical abuse is abuse involving contact intended to cause feelings of intimidation, injury, or other physical suffering or bodily harm.-Forms of physical abuse:*Striking*Punching*Belting*Pushing, pulling*Slapping*Whipping*Striking with an object...
and sexual
Sexual abuse
Sexual abuse, also referred to as molestation, is the forcing of undesired sexual behavior by one person upon another. When that force is immediate, of short duration, or infrequent, it is called sexual assault. The offender is referred to as a sexual abuser or molester...
abuse of residents by members of the school's staff. The exposé, entitled Willowbrook: The Last Disgrace, garnered national attention and won a Peabody Award
Peabody Award
The George Foster Peabody Awards recognize distinguished and meritorious public service by radio and television stations, networks, producing organizations and individuals. In 1939, the National Association of Broadcasters formed a committee to recognize outstanding achievement in radio broadcasting...
for Rivera. Rivera later appeared on the nationally televised Dick Cavett Show with film of patients at the school.
As a result of the overcrowding, a class-action lawsuit was filed against the State of New York in federal court on March 17, 1972. A settlement in the case was reached on May 5, 1975, mandating reforms at the site, but several years would pass before all of the violations were corrected. The publicity generated by the case was a major contributing factor to the passage of a federal law
Federal law
Federal law is the body of law created by the federal government of a country. A federal government is formed when a group of political units, such as states or provinces join together in a federation, surrendering their individual sovereignty and many powers to the central government while...
, the Civil Rights of Institutionalized Persons Act of 1980
Civil Rights of Institutionalized Persons Act
The Civil Rights of Institutionalized Persons Act of 1980 is a United States federal law intended to protect the rights of people in state or local correctional facilities, nursing homes, mental health facilities and institutions for people with intellectual and developmental disabilities.CRIPA is...
.
Closing the school
In 1975, a Willowbrook Consent Decree was signed that committed New York state to improve community placement for the now designated "Willowbrook Class."In 1983, the state of New York announced plans to close Willowbrook, which had been renamed the Staten Island Developmental Center in 1974. By the end of March 1986, the number of residents housed there had dwindled to 250, and the last children left the grounds on September 17, 1987.
After the developmental center closed, the site became the focus of intense local debate about what should be done with the property. In 1989 a portion of the land was acquired by the city of New York, with the intent of using it to establish a new campus for the College of Staten Island, and the new campus opened at Willowbrook in 1993. At 0.8 square kilometres (197.7 acre), this campus is the largest maintained by the City University of New York
City University of New York
The City University of New York is the public university system of New York City, with its administrative offices in Yorkville in Manhattan. It is the largest urban university in the United States, consisting of 23 institutions: 11 senior colleges, six community colleges, the William E...
.
Within the year, one of CSI's two other existing campuses, located in the Sunnyside
Sunnyside, Staten Island
Sunnyside is the name of a neighborhood in the Mid-Island region of the New York City borough of Staten Island.Two large city parks—Silver Lake Park and Clove Lakes Park—form the eastern and western boundaries, respectively, of Sunnyside, which is named for a boarding house that was...
neighborhood, was closed, renovated, and opened in 1995 as the home of a new K-12 Michael J. Petrides School.
The remaining 0.7 square kilometres (173 acre) of the state school's original property, at the south end, is still under the administration of the Office for People with Developmental Disabilities (OPWDD), an agency of the New York State Department of Mental Hygiene, and houses the New York State Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities and the Staten Island Developmental Disabilities Services Office.
On February 25, 1987, the Federal Court
United States federal courts
The United States federal courts make up the judiciary branch of federal government of the United States organized under the United States Constitution and laws of the federal government.-Categories:...
approved the Willowbrook "1987 Stipulation," which set forth guidelines that required OMRDD
OMRDD
The Office of Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities is an independent agency in the state of New York, whose mission is to provide services and conduct research for those with mental retardation and developmental disabilities. This agency was renamed in July of 2010 to the Office for...
community placement for the "Willowbrook Class."
See also
- Developmental disabilityDevelopmental disabilityDevelopmental disability is a term used in the United States and Canada to describe lifelong disabilities attributable to mental or physical impairments, manifested prior to age 18. It is not synonymous with "developmental delay" which is often a consequence of a temporary illness or trauma during...
- Human experimentation in the United StatesHuman experimentation in the United StatesThere have been numerous experiments performed on human test subjects in the United States that have been considered unethical, and were often performed illegally, without the knowledge, consent, or informed consent of the test subjects....
- Summit Children's Residence CenterSummit Children's Residence CenterSummit Children's Residence Center is a program for teens with learning or behavioral problems. The Center located in Nyack, New York and is set in grounds.-External links:*...
- Trenton Psychiatric Hospital
- Tuskegee Syphilis StudyTuskegee Syphilis StudyThe Tuskegee syphilis experiment was an infamous clinical study conducted between 1932 and 1972 in Tuskegee, Alabama by the U.S. Public Health Service to study the natural progression of untreated syphilis in poor, rural black men who thought they were receiving free health care from the U.S...
- Walter E. Fernald State SchoolWalter E. Fernald State SchoolThe Walter E. Fernald State School, now the Walter E. Fernald Developmental Center, located in Waltham, Massachusetts, is the Western hemisphere's oldest publicly funded institution serving people with developmental disabilities. Originally a Victorian sanatorium, it became a "poster child" for...