Women in politics
Encyclopedia
Women in government in the modern era are under-represented in most countries worldwide, in contrast to men. However, women are increasingly being politically elected to be heads of state and government. More than 20 countries currently have a woman holding office as the head of a national government, and the global participation rate of women in national-level parliaments is nearly 20%. A number of countries are exploring measures that may increase women's participation in government at all levels, from the local to the national.
Women, as the conventional primary caretakers of children, often have a more prominent role than men in advocating for children, resulting in a “double dividend” in terms of the benefits of women’s representation. Female representatives not only advance women’s rights, but also advance the rights of children. In national legislatures, there is a notable trend of women advancing gender and family-friendly legislation. This advocacy has been seen in countries ranging from France, Sweden and the Netherlands, to South Africa, Rwanda, and Egypt. Furthermore, a number of studies from both industrialized and developed countries indicate that women in local government tend to advance social issues. In India, for instance, greater women’s representation has corresponded with a more equitable distribution of community resources, including more gender-sensitive spending on programs related to health, nutrition, and education.
Gender inequality within families, inequitable division of labor within households, and cultural attitudes about gender roles further subjugate women and serve to limit their representation in public life. Societies that are highly patriarchal often have local power structures that make it difficult for women to combat. Thus, their interests are often not represented.
Even once elected, women tend to hold lesser valued cabinet ministries or similar positions. These are described as “soft industries” and include health, education, and welfare. Rarely do women hold executive decision-making authority in more powerful domains or those that are associated with traditional notions of masculinity (such as finance and the military). Typically, the more powerful the institution, the less likely it is that women’s interests will be represented. Additionally, in more autocratic nations, women are less likely to have their interests represented. Many women attain political standing due to kinship ties, as they have male family members who are involved in politics. These women tend to be from higher income, higher status families and thus may not be as focused on the issues faced by lower income families.
, leader of the Parti Quebecois
(PQ) and the official opposition of the National Assembly of Quebec
, was the subject of a claim by Claude Pinard, a PQ "backbencher
", that many Quebecers do not support a female politician: "I believe that one of her serious handicaps is the fact she's a woman [...] I sincerely believe that a good segment of the population won't support her because she's a woman". A 2000 study that analyzed 1993 election results in Canada found that among "similarly situated women and men candidates", women actually had a small vote advantage. The study showed that neither voter turnout nor urban/rural constituencies were factors that help or hurt a female candidate, but "office-holding experience in non-political organizations made a modest contribution to women's electoral advantage".
Bruce M. Hicks, an electoral studies researcher at Université de Montréal, states that evidence shows that female candidates begin with a head start in voters' eyes of as much as 10 per cent, and that female candidates are often more favourably associated by voters with issues like health care and education.The electorate's perception that female candidates have more proficiency with traditional women's spheres such as education and health care presents a possibility that gender stereotypes can work in a female candidate's favour, at least among the electorate. In politics, however, Hicks points out that sexism is nothing new:
Within Quebec itself, Don McPherson pointed out that Pinard himself has enjoyed greater electoral success with Pauline Marois as party leader than under a previous male party leader, when Pinard failed to be elected in his riding. Demographically, Pinard's electoral riding is rural, with "relatively older, less-well educated voters".
The major English-speaking democracies are placed in the top 40% of the ranked countries. New Zealand ranks at position 17 with women comprising 33.6% of its lower house in parliament. Australia (24.7% in the lower house, 35.5% in the upper house) and Canada (24.7% lower house, 35.9% upper house) rank at position 38 out of 188 countries. The United Kingdom is ranked at 48 (22.0% lower house, 20.1% upper house), while the United States ranks 69 (16.9% in the lower house, 17.0% in the upper house). It should be noted that not all of these lower and/or upper houses in national parliaments are democratically elected; for example, in Canada members of the upper house (the Senate) are appointed. In a small number of countries, for example Saudi Arabia, women's suffrage does not exist, and therefore there is a 0% representation of women in the national government.
movements
Quotas may be utilized during different stages of the political nomination/selection process to address different junctures at which women may be inherently disadvantaged:
Quota usage can have marked effects on female representation in governance. In 1995, Rwanda ranked 24th in terms of female representation, and jumped to 1st in 2003 after quotas were introduced. Similar effects can be seen in Argentina, Iraq, Burundi, Mozambique, and South Africa, for example. Of the top-ranked 20 countries in terms of female representation in government, 17 of these countries utilize some sort of quota system to ensure female inclusion. Though such inclusion is mainly instituted at the national level, there have been efforts in India to addresses female inclusion at the subnational level, through quotas for parliamentary positions.
A gender-responsive budget may also work to address issues of unpaid care work and caring labor gaps.
efforts to gather more accurate and comprehensive data, 62 countries had no recent national data available regarding maternal mortality rates. Only 38 countries have sex-disaggregated statistics available to report frequency of violence against women. 41 countries collect sex-disaggregated data on school attendance, while 52 countries assess sex-disaggregated wage statistics.
compared to men. Some women, however, have been politically elected to be heads of state and government.
Some of the most prominent female leaders of world power
s in recent decades were (listed by name then position):
of the Tuvan People's Republic from 1940–1944, followed by Sükhbaataryn Yanjmaa of the Mongolian People's Republic 1953-1954 and Soong Ching-ling
of the People's Republic of China
from 1968–1972 and 1981.
Following the socialist countries, the Nordic countries have been forerunners in including women in the executive branch. The second cabinet Brundtland
(1986–1989) was historical in that 8 out of 18 cabinet members were women, and in 2007 the second cabinet Stoltenberg
(2005–present) was more than 50% women. Some current female politicians that have reached top positions in the Nordic countries are the President of Finland
, Tarja Halonen
and Deputy Prime Minister of Sweden
, Maud Olofsson
.
In 2003, Finland had a historical moment when all top leaders of the country were women and also represented different political parties: Social democrat
Tarja Halonen
was President, Riitta Uosukainen
from National Coalition Party was Speaker of the Parliament and after the parliamentary elections of 2003
Anneli Jäätteenmäki
from Center party
was on her way to become the first female Prime Minister of Finland
. By June 22, 2010 Mari Kiviniemi
of the Centre Party was appointed the second female Prime Minister of Finland
.
The world's first elected female president was Vigdís Finnbogadóttir
of Iceland
, whose term lasted from 1980 to 1996.
In 2005, Ellen Johnson Sirleaf of Liberia
became Africa's first elected female head of state.
became the first female to hold a minister position, as the People's Commissar for Social Welfare in Soviet Russia
in 1917. Nina Bang
, Danish Minister of Education from 1924–26, was the world's second full female cabinet minister.
The first female head of government was Evgenia Bosh
, the Bolshevik
military leader who held the People's Secretary of Internal Affairs position in the Ukraine People's Republic of the Soviets of Workers and Peasants from 1917–1918, which was responsible for executive functions. Nevertheless, development was slow and it was not until the end of the 20th century that female ministers stopped being unusual.
The first government organization formed with the goal of women's equality was the Zhenotdel
, in Soviet Russia.
According to a 2006 report by the Inter-Parliamentary Union, 16% of all parliament members in the world are female. In 1995, the United Nations
set a goal of 30% female representation. The current annual growth rate of women in national parliaments is about 0.5% worldwide. At this rate, gender parity in national legislatures will not be achieved until 2068.
The top ten countries in terms of number of female parliamentary members are Rwanda
with 56.3%, Sweden
(47.0%), Cuba
(43.2%), Finland
(41.5%), the Netherlands (41.3%), Argentina
(40.0%), Denmark
(38.0%), Angola
(37.3%), Costa Rica
(36.8%), Spain
(36.3%). Cuba has the highest percentage for countries without a quota. In South Asia, Nepal is highest in the rank of women participation in politics with (33%). In the United States in 2008, the New Hampshire State Senate became the first state legislature upper house to possess an elected female majority.
The United Kingdom and United States are roughly in line with the world average. The House of Lords
has 139 women (19.7%), while there are 125 women
(19.4%) in the British House of Commons
.
A 2003 survey conducted by United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG), a global network supporting inclusive local governments, found that the average proportion of women in local council was 15%. In leadership positions, the proportion of women was lower: for instance, 5% of mayors of Latin American municipalities are women.
According to a comparative study of women in local governments in East Asia and the Pacific, women have been more successful in reaching decision-making position in local governments than at the national level. Local governments tend to be more accessible and have more available positions. Also, women’s role in local governments may be more accepted because they are seen as an extension of their involvement in the community.
Importance
Increasing women’s representation in the government can empower women. Increasing women’s representation in government is necessary to achieve gender parity. This notion of women’s empowerment is rooted in the human capabilities approach, in which individuals are empowered to choose the functioning that they deem valuable.Women, as the conventional primary caretakers of children, often have a more prominent role than men in advocating for children, resulting in a “double dividend” in terms of the benefits of women’s representation. Female representatives not only advance women’s rights, but also advance the rights of children. In national legislatures, there is a notable trend of women advancing gender and family-friendly legislation. This advocacy has been seen in countries ranging from France, Sweden and the Netherlands, to South Africa, Rwanda, and Egypt. Furthermore, a number of studies from both industrialized and developed countries indicate that women in local government tend to advance social issues. In India, for instance, greater women’s representation has corresponded with a more equitable distribution of community resources, including more gender-sensitive spending on programs related to health, nutrition, and education.
Challenges faced by women
Women face numerous obstacles in achieving representation in governance. Their participation has been limited by the assumption that women’s proper sphere is the “private” sphere. Whereas the “public” domain is one of political authority and contestation, the “private” realm is associated with the family and the home. By relegating women to the private sphere, their ability to enter the political arena is curtailed.Gender inequality within families, inequitable division of labor within households, and cultural attitudes about gender roles further subjugate women and serve to limit their representation in public life. Societies that are highly patriarchal often have local power structures that make it difficult for women to combat. Thus, their interests are often not represented.
Even once elected, women tend to hold lesser valued cabinet ministries or similar positions. These are described as “soft industries” and include health, education, and welfare. Rarely do women hold executive decision-making authority in more powerful domains or those that are associated with traditional notions of masculinity (such as finance and the military). Typically, the more powerful the institution, the less likely it is that women’s interests will be represented. Additionally, in more autocratic nations, women are less likely to have their interests represented. Many women attain political standing due to kinship ties, as they have male family members who are involved in politics. These women tend to be from higher income, higher status families and thus may not be as focused on the issues faced by lower income families.
Challenges within political parties
In Canada, there is evidence that female politicians face gender stigma from male members of the political parties to which they belong, which can undermine the ability of women to reach or maintain leadership roles. Pauline MaroisPauline Marois
Pauline Marois is the current leader of the Parti Québécois in the province of Quebec, since June 27, 2007 and current Leader of the Official Opposition of the National Assembly of Quebec, representing the riding of Charlevoix...
, leader of the Parti Quebecois
Parti Québécois
The Parti Québécois is a centre-left political party that advocates national sovereignty for the province of Quebec and secession from Canada. The Party traditionally has support from the labour movement. Unlike many other social-democratic parties, its ties with the labour movement are informal...
(PQ) and the official opposition of the National Assembly of Quebec
National Assembly of Quebec
The National Assembly of Quebec is the legislative body of the Province of Quebec. The Lieutenant Governor and the National Assembly compose the Parliament of Quebec, which operates in a fashion similar to those of other British-style parliamentary systems.The National Assembly was formerly the...
, was the subject of a claim by Claude Pinard, a PQ "backbencher
Backbencher
In Westminster parliamentary systems, a backbencher is a Member of Parliament or a legislator who does not hold governmental office and is not a Front Bench spokesperson in the Opposition...
", that many Quebecers do not support a female politician: "I believe that one of her serious handicaps is the fact she's a woman [...] I sincerely believe that a good segment of the population won't support her because she's a woman". A 2000 study that analyzed 1993 election results in Canada found that among "similarly situated women and men candidates", women actually had a small vote advantage. The study showed that neither voter turnout nor urban/rural constituencies were factors that help or hurt a female candidate, but "office-holding experience in non-political organizations made a modest contribution to women's electoral advantage".
Bruce M. Hicks, an electoral studies researcher at Université de Montréal, states that evidence shows that female candidates begin with a head start in voters' eyes of as much as 10 per cent, and that female candidates are often more favourably associated by voters with issues like health care and education.The electorate's perception that female candidates have more proficiency with traditional women's spheres such as education and health care presents a possibility that gender stereotypes can work in a female candidate's favour, at least among the electorate. In politics, however, Hicks points out that sexism is nothing new:
Within Quebec itself, Don McPherson pointed out that Pinard himself has enjoyed greater electoral success with Pauline Marois as party leader than under a previous male party leader, when Pinard failed to be elected in his riding. Demographically, Pinard's electoral riding is rural, with "relatively older, less-well educated voters".
Women in national parliaments
Out of 188 countries, listed in descending order by the percentage of women in the lower or single house, the top 10 countries with the greatest representation of women in national parliaments are (figures reflect information as of August 31, 2011):| Rank | Country | Lower or Single House | Upper House or Senate |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Rwanda | 56.3% | 34.6% |
| 2 | Andorra | 53.6% | - |
| 3 | Sweden | 45% | - |
| 4 | South Africa | 44.5% | 29.6% |
| 5 | Cuba | 43.2% | - |
| 6 | Iceland | 42.9% | - |
| 7 | Finland | 42.5% | - |
| 8 | Norway | 39.6% | |
| 9 | Belgium | 39.3% | 36.6% |
| " | Netherlands | 39.3% | 36.0% |
| 10 | Mozambique | 39.2% | |
The major English-speaking democracies are placed in the top 40% of the ranked countries. New Zealand ranks at position 17 with women comprising 33.6% of its lower house in parliament. Australia (24.7% in the lower house, 35.5% in the upper house) and Canada (24.7% lower house, 35.9% upper house) rank at position 38 out of 188 countries. The United Kingdom is ranked at 48 (22.0% lower house, 20.1% upper house), while the United States ranks 69 (16.9% in the lower house, 17.0% in the upper house). It should be noted that not all of these lower and/or upper houses in national parliaments are democratically elected; for example, in Canada members of the upper house (the Senate) are appointed. In a small number of countries, for example Saudi Arabia, women's suffrage does not exist, and therefore there is a 0% representation of women in the national government.
Policies to increase women’s participation
The United Nations has identified six avenues by which female participation in politics and government may be strengthened. These avenues are: equalization of educational opportunities, quotas for female participation in governing bodies, legislative reform to increase focus on issues concerning women and children, financing gender-responsive budgets to equally take into account the needs of men and women, increasing the presence of sex-disaggregated statistics in national research/data, and furthering the presence and agency of grassroots women’s empowermentEmpowerment
Empowerment refers to increasing the spiritual, political, social, racial, educational, gender or economic strength of individuals and communities...
movements
Education
Women with formal education (at any level) are likelier to delay marriage and subsequent childbirth, be better informed about infant and child nutrition, and ensure childhood immunization. Children of mothers with formal education are better nourished and have higher survival rates. Equalization of educational opportunities for boys and girls may take the form of several initiatives:- abolishment of educational fees which would require parents to consider financial issues when deciding which of their children to educate. Poor children in rural areas are particularly affected by inequality resulting from educational fees.
- encouragement of parents and communities to institute gender-equal educational agendas. Perceived opportunity costOpportunity costOpportunity cost is the cost of any activity measured in terms of the value of the best alternative that is not chosen . It is the sacrifice related to the second best choice available to someone, or group, who has picked among several mutually exclusive choices. The opportunity cost is also the...
of educating girls may be addressed through a conditional cash transferConditional Cash TransferConditional cash transfer programs aim to reduce poverty by making welfare programs conditional upon the receivers' actions. The government only transfers the money to persons who meet certain criteria...
program which financially reward families who educate their daughters (thus removing the financial barrier that results from girls substituting school attendance for work in the family labor force). - creation of “girl-friendly” schools to minimize bias and create a safe school environment for girls and young women. Currently, a barrier to female school attendance is the risk of sexual violenceSexual violenceSexual violence occurs throughout the world, although in most countries there has been little research conducted on the problem. Due to the private nature of sexual violence, estimating the extent of the problem is difficult...
en route to school. A “safe school environment” is one in which the school is located to minimize such violence, in addition to providing girls with educational opportunities (as opposed to using female students to perform janitorial work or other menial labor).
Quotas
Quotas are mechanisms by which governments seek to numerically increase the numbers of female represented in the governing body. Types of quotas include:- Gender quota systems: institute a “critical value” below which is deemed an imbalanced government. Examples of such critical values include 20% of legislators, 50% of politicians, etc.
- Legal quota systems regulate the governance of political parties and bodies. Such quotas may be mandated by electoral law (as in Ecuador, for example) or may be constitutionally required (as in Nepal).
- Voluntary party quota systems may be used by political partiesPolitical PartiesPolitical Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy is a book by sociologist Robert Michels, published in 1911 , and first introducing the concept of iron law of oligarchy...
at will, yet are not mandated by electoral law or by a country’s constitution. If a country’s leading or majority political party engages in a voluntary party quota system, the effect may “trickle down” to minority political parties in the country (as in the case of the African National Congress in South Africa).
Quotas may be utilized during different stages of the political nomination/selection process to address different junctures at which women may be inherently disadvantaged:
- Potential candidacy: gender quota systems can mandate that from the pool of aspirants, a certain percentage of them must be female.
- Nomination: legal or voluntary quotas are enforced upon this stage, during which a certain portion of nominated candidates on the party’s ballot must be female.
- Election: “reserved seats” may be filled only by women.
Quota usage can have marked effects on female representation in governance. In 1995, Rwanda ranked 24th in terms of female representation, and jumped to 1st in 2003 after quotas were introduced. Similar effects can be seen in Argentina, Iraq, Burundi, Mozambique, and South Africa, for example. Of the top-ranked 20 countries in terms of female representation in government, 17 of these countries utilize some sort of quota system to ensure female inclusion. Though such inclusion is mainly instituted at the national level, there have been efforts in India to addresses female inclusion at the subnational level, through quotas for parliamentary positions.
Legislation
Legislative agendas, some pushed by female political figures, may focus on several key issues to address ongoing gender disparities:- Reducing domestic and gender-based violence. The Convention on the Rights of the Child, in 1989, addressed home violence and its effects on children. The Convention stipulates that children are holders of human rights, and authorizes the State to 1) prevent all forms of violence, and 2) respond to past violence effectively. Gender-based violence, such as the use of rape as a tool of warfare, was addressed in Resolution 1325 of the UN Security Council in 2000. It calls for “all parties of armed conflict to take special measures to protect women and girls from gender-based violence.” Currently, 64 countries have either drafted or are in the process of drafting laws to criminalize gender violence.
- Reducing in-home discrimination through equalizing propertyPropertyProperty is any physical or intangible entity that is owned by a person or jointly by a group of people or a legal entity like a corporation...
and inheritanceInheritanceInheritance is the practice of passing on property, titles, debts, rights and obligations upon the death of an individual. It has long played an important role in human societies...
rights. National legislation can supersede traditionally male-dominated inheritance models. Such legislation has been proven effective in countries like Colombia, where 60% of land is held in joint titles between men and women (compared to 18% before the passage of joint titling legislation in 1996).
Financing
Gender-responsive budgets address the needs and interests of different individuals and social groups, maintaining awareness of gender issues within the formation of policies and budgets. Such budgets are not necessarily a 50-50 male-female split, but accurately reflect the needs of each gender (such as increased allocation for women’s reproductive health. Benefits of gender-responsive budgets include:- Improved budget efficiency by ensuring that funds are allocated where they are needed most
- Strengthened government position by advocating for needs of all, including the poor and the underrepresented
- Increased information flow surrounding needs of those who are usually discriminated against
A gender-responsive budget may also work to address issues of unpaid care work and caring labor gaps.
Research/data improvements
Current research which uses sex-aggregated statistics may underplay or minimize the quantitative presentation of issues such as maternal mortality, violence against women, and girls’ school attendance. Sex-disaggregated statistics are lacking in the assessment of maternal mortality rates, for example. Prior to UNICEF and UNIFEMUNIFEM
The United Nations Development Fund for Women, commonly known as UNIFEM was established in December 1976 originally as the Voluntary Fund for the United Nations Decade for Women in the International Women's Year. Its first director was Dr. Margaret Snyder, Ph.D...
efforts to gather more accurate and comprehensive data, 62 countries had no recent national data available regarding maternal mortality rates. Only 38 countries have sex-disaggregated statistics available to report frequency of violence against women. 41 countries collect sex-disaggregated data on school attendance, while 52 countries assess sex-disaggregated wage statistics.
Grassroots women’s empowerment movements
Women’s informal collectives are crucial to improving the standard of living for women worldwide. Collectives can address such issues as nutrition, education, shelter, food distribution, and generally improved standard of living. Empowering such collectives can increase their reach to the women most in need of support and empowerment.Brazil
A 1995 Brazilian gender quota was extended first to city councilor positions in 1996, then extended to candidates of all political legislative positions by 1998. By 1998, 30% of political candidates had to be women, with varied results in terms of the gender balance of the officials ultimately elected. Though the percentage of national legislature seats occupied by women dropped in the initial years following the passage of the quota law, the percentage has since risen (from 6.2% pre-quota, to 5.7% in 1998, to 8.9% in 2006). However, Brazil has struggled with the quota law in several respects:- Though the quota law mandates a certain percentage of candidate spots be reserved for women, it is not compulsory that those spots be filled by women.
- The quota law also allowed political parties to increase the number of candidates, further increasing electoral competition and having a negligible impact on the actual number of women elected.
- Brazil is the fifth-largest country in the world (in terms of both population size and also land area), making it difficult for women to accept the distance from home which would accompany traveling to seek a spot in the national legislative body.
Finland
The Finnish national quota law, introduced in 1995, mandates that among all indirectly elected public bodies (at both a national and a local level), at least 40% of the governing body must be female. The 1995 laws was a reformed version of a similar 1986 law. Unlike other countries’ quota laws, which affect party structure or electoral candidate lists, the Finnish law addresses indirectly elected bodies (nominated by official authorities)—the law does not address popularly elected bodies. The Finnish law heavily emphasizes local municipal boards and other subnational institutions. From 1993 (pre-quota law) to 1997 (post-quota law), the proportion of women on municipal executive boards increased from 25% to 45%. The quota law also affected gender segregation in local governance: before the passage of the law, there had been a gender imbalance in terms of female overrepresentation in “soft-sector” boards (those concerned with health, education, etc.) and female underrepresentation in “hard-sector” boards (those concerned with economics and technology). In 1997, the boards were balanced horizontally. However, areas not subject to quota laws continue to be imbalanced. In 2003, it was determined that only 16% of the chairs of municipal executive boards are female—chair positions in this area are not quota-regulated.Spain
In 2007, Spain passed the Equality Law, requiring a “principle of balanced presence” by mandating political parties to include 40-60% of each sex among electoral candidates. This law is unique in that surpasses the 40% parity figure established by the European Commission in 1998; a figure which (according to the EC) indicates “parity democracy.” Though there is anecdotal of increasing female representation on a local and national level, there has not yet been national-level data to quantitatively bolster this assertion.Women in government office
Women in politics have historically been under-represented in Western societiesWestern world
The Western world, also known as the West and the Occident , is a term referring to the countries of Western Europe , the countries of the Americas, as well all countries of Northern and Central Europe, Australia and New Zealand...
compared to men. Some women, however, have been politically elected to be heads of state and government.
Historic firsts for women in government
- Sukhbaataryn Yanjmaa, Mongolia (1953-1954): World's first female (acting) president
- Isabel Peron, Argentina (1974-1976): World's first female (non-acting) president
- Vigdis FinnbogadottirVigdís FinnbogadóttirVigdís Finnbogadóttir is an Icelandic politician who served as the fourth President of Iceland from 1980 to 1996. In addition to being both Iceland's and Europe's first female president, she was the world's first democratically elected female head of state...
, Iceland (1980-1996): World's first female elected president, and first female world leader who did not have a father or husband who was also leader at one time - Mary McAleeseMary McAleeseMary Patricia McAleese served as the eighth President of Ireland from 1997 to 2011. She was the second female president and was first elected in 1997 succeeding Mary Robinson, making McAleese the world's first woman to succeed another as president. She was re-elected unopposed for a second term in...
, Ireland (1997-2011):First time that a female president directly succeeded another female president - Sri LankaSri LankaSri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka is a country off the southern coast of the Indian subcontinent. Known until 1972 as Ceylon , Sri Lanka is an island surrounded by the Indian Ocean, the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait, and lies in the vicinity of India and the...
(1994-2000): First time that a nation possessed a female prime minister and a female president simultaneously. Sri Lanka in 1994 also marked the first time that a female prime minister directly succeeded another female prime minister. - Jóhanna SigurðardóttirJóhanna SigurðardóttirJóhanna Sigurðardóttir , , is the Prime Minister of Iceland. Many years a politician, she was previously Iceland's Minister of Social Affairs and Social Security from 1987–1994 and 2007–2009. She has been a member of the Althing for Reykjavík constituencies since 1978, winning re-election on eight...
, Iceland (2009- ): World's first openly lesbian world leader, first female world leader to wed a same-sex partner while in office
Some of the most prominent female leaders of world power
World Power
World Power is the debut album of German Eurodance project Snap!, released in 1990 on Bookmark/Ariola Records. The album received generally positive reviews from music critics, as the project's musical style and its vocalists, Turbo B and Penny "Tiny" Ford, were well-received...
s in recent decades were (listed by name then position):
- Corazon AquinoCorazon AquinoMaria Corazon Sumulong Cojuangco-Aquino was the 11th President of the Philippines and the first woman to hold that office in Philippine history. She is best remembered for leading the 1986 People Power Revolution, which toppled Ferdinand Marcos and restored democracy in the Philippines...
, 11th President of The Philippines - Gloria Macapagal-ArroyoGloria Macapagal-ArroyoGloria Macapagal-Arroyo is a Filipino politician who served as the 14th President of the Philippines from 2001 to 2010, as the 12th Vice President of the Philippines from 1998 to 2001, and is currently a member of the House of Representatives representing the 2nd District of Pampanga...
, 14th President of The Philippines - Indira GandhiIndira GandhiIndira Priyadarshini Gandhara was an Indian politician who served as the third Prime Minister of India for three consecutive terms and a fourth term . She was assassinated by Sikh extremists...
, Prime Minister of India - Margaret ThatcherMargaret ThatcherMargaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990...
, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom - Tansu ÇillerTansu ÇillerTansu Penbe Çiller is a Turkish economist and politician. She was Turkey's first and only female Prime Minister.- Early career :She is the daughter of a Turkish governor of Bilecik province during the 1950s. She graduated from the School of Economics at Robert College after finishing the American...
, Prime Minister of Turkey - Benazir BhuttoBenazir BhuttoBenazir Bhutto was a democratic socialist who served as the 11th Prime Minister of Pakistan in two non-consecutive terms from 1988 until 1990 and 1993 until 1996....
. Prime Minister of Pakistan - Golda MeirGolda MeirGolda Meir ; May 3, 1898 – December 8, 1978) was a teacher, kibbutznik and politician who became the fourth Prime Minister of the State of Israel....
, Prime Minister of Israel - Angela MerkelAngela MerkelAngela Dorothea Merkel is the current Chancellor of Germany . Merkel, elected to the Bundestag from Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, has been the chairwoman of the Christian Democratic Union since 2000, and chairwoman of the CDU-CSU parliamentary coalition from 2002 to 2005.From 2005 to 2009 she led a...
, Chancellor of Germany - Kim CampbellKim CampbellAvril Phædra Douglas "Kim" Campbell, is a Canadian politician, lawyer, university professor, diplomat, and writer. She served as the 19th Prime Minister of Canada, serving from June 25, 1993, to November 4, 1993...
, Prime Minister of Canada - Edith CressonÉdith CressonÉdith Cresson is a French politician. She was the first and so far only woman to have held the office of Prime Minister of France.- French Prime Minister :Cresson was appointed to the prime ministerial post by President François Mitterrand on 15 May 1991...
, Prime Minister of France - Pratibha PatilPratibha PatilPratibha Devisingh Patil is the 12th President of the Republic of India and first woman to hold the office. She was sworn in as President of India on 25 July 2007, succeeding Dr. A.P.J...
, President of India - Soong Ching-ling (AKA Rosamond Soong)Soong Ching-lingSoong Ching-ling , also known as Madame Sun Yat-sen, was one of the three Soong sisters—who, along with their husbands, were amongst China's most significant political figures of the early 20th century. She was the Vice Chairman of the People's Republic of China...
, President of the People's Republic of China - Director of the Cultural RevolutionCultural RevolutionThe Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, commonly known as the Cultural Revolution , was a socio-political movement that took place in the People's Republic of China from 1966 through 1976...
, dictator Jiang QingJiang QingJiang Qing was the pseudonym that was used by Chinese leader Mao Zedong's last wife and major Communist Party of China power figure. She went by the stage name Lan Ping during her acting career, and was known by various other names during her life...
Current women leaders of national governments
The following women leaders are currently in office as the either the head of their nation's government or the head of state (as of November 2011):| Date term began | Title of office | Name | Country |
|---|---|---|---|
| 01.03.2000 | President | Tarja Halonen Tarja Halonen Tarja Kaarina Halonen is the incumbent President of Finland. The first female to hold the office, Halonen had previously been a member of the parliament from 1979 to 2000 when she resigned after her election to the presidency... |
Finland |
| 22.11.2005 | Chancellor | Angela Merkel Angela Merkel Angela Dorothea Merkel is the current Chancellor of Germany . Merkel, elected to the Bundestag from Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, has been the chairwoman of the Christian Democratic Union since 2000, and chairwoman of the CDU-CSU parliamentary coalition from 2002 to 2005.From 2005 to 2009 she led a... |
Germany |
| 16.01.2006 | President | Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf Ellen Johnson Sirleaf is the 24th and current President of Liberia. She served as Minister of Finance under President William Tolbert from 1979 until the 1980 coup d'état, after which she left Liberia and held senior positions at various financial institutions. She placed a very distant second in... |
Liberia |
| 25.07.2007 | President | Pratibha Patil Pratibha Patil Pratibha Devisingh Patil is the 12th President of the Republic of India and first woman to hold the office. She was sworn in as President of India on 25 July 2007, succeeding Dr. A.P.J... |
India |
| 10.12.2007 | President | Cristina Fernández de Kirchner Cristina Fernández de Kirchner Cristina Elisabet Fernández de Kirchner , commonly known as Cristina Fernández or Cristina Kirchner is the 55th and current President of Argentina and the widow of former President Néstor Kirchner. She is Argentina's first elected female president, and the second female president ever to serve... |
Argentina |
| 03.12.2008 | Leader of the Government | Antonella Mularoni Antonella Mularoni Antonella Mularoni is Secretary of State for Foreign and Political Affairs, Telecommunications and Transport of the Republic of San Marino.She was formerly the San Marino judge for the European Court of Human Rights.... |
San Marino |
| 06.01.2009 | Prime Minister | Sheikh Hasina Wajed | Bangladesh |
| 01.02.2009 | Prime Minister | Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir , , is the Prime Minister of Iceland. Many years a politician, she was previously Iceland's Minister of Social Affairs and Social Security from 1987–1994 and 2007–2009. She has been a member of the Althing for Reykjavík constituencies since 1978, winning re-election on eight... |
Iceland |
| 10.06.2009 | Interim President | Rose Francine Rogombé Rose Francine Rogombé Rose Francine Rogombé is a Gabonese politician who was Acting President of Gabon from June 2009 to October 2009, following the death of long-time President Omar Bongo. She constitutionally succeeded Bongo due to her role as President of the Senate, a post to which she was elected in February 2009... |
Gabon |
| 06.07.2009 | Prime Minister | Jadranka Kosor Jadranka Kosor Jadranka Kosor is a Croatian politician and former journalist. She is the current Prime Minister of Croatia, having taken office on July 6, 2009, following the sudden resignation of her predecessor Ivo Sanader. She is Croatia's first female Prime Minister since independence.-Early life:Jadranka... |
Croatia |
| 12.07.2009 | President | Dalia Grybauskaitė Dalia Grybauskaitė Dalia Grybauskaitė is the current President of Lithuania, inaugurated on 12 July 2009. She had previously been Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs, Finance Minister, and European Commissioner for Financial Programming and the Budget... |
Lithuania |
| 19.05.2010 | President | Roza Otunbayeva Roza Otunbayeva Roza Isakovna Otunbayeva is a Kyrgyz diplomat and politican who served as the President of Kyrgyzstan from 7 April 2010 until 1 December 2011. She was sworn in on July 3, 2010, after acting as interim leader following the 2010 April revolution which led to the ousting of then President Kurmanbek... |
Kyrgyzstan |
| 08.05.2010 | President | Laura Chinchilla Miranda Laura Chinchilla Miranda Laura Chinchilla Miranda is a Costa Rican politician and the first female President of Costa Rica. She was one of Óscar Arias Sánchez's two Vice-Presidents and his administration's Minister of Justice. She was the governing PLN candidate for President in the 2010 general election, where she won... |
Costa Rica |
| 26.05.2010 | Prime Minister | Kamla Persad-Bissessar Kamla Persad-Bissessar Kamla Persad-Bissessar is the Prime Minister of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, the seventh person to hold this position... |
Trinidad and Tobago |
| 24.06.2010 | Prime Minister | Julia Gillard Julia Gillard Julia Eileen Gillard is the 27th and current Prime Minister of Australia, in office since June 2010.Gillard was born in Barry, Vale of Glamorgan, Wales and migrated with her family to Adelaide, Australia in 1966, attending Mitcham Demonstration School and Unley High School. In 1982 Gillard moved... |
Australia |
| 08.07.2010 | Prime Minister | Iveta Radičová Iveta Radicová Iveta Radičová is the Prime Minister of Slovakia and a member of the Slovak Democratic and Christian Union – Democratic Party. She was sworn into office on 8 July 2010 as the head of a four-party center-right coalition government following the 2010 Slovak parliamentary election, until the fall of... |
Slovakia |
| 10.10.2010 | Prime Minister | Sarah Wescott-Williams | Sint Maarten (Self-governing Part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands) |
| 29.10.2010 | Premier | Paula A. Cox | Bermuda (British Dependent Territory) |
| 01.01.2011 | Executive President | Dilma Rousseff Dilma Rousseff Dilma Vana Rousseff is the 36th and current President of Brazil. She is the first woman to hold the office. Prior to that, in 2005, she was also the first woman to become Chief of Staff of Brazil, appointed by then President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva.... |
Brazil |
| 01.01.2011 | President | Micheline Calmy-Rey Micheline Calmy-Rey Micheline Anne-Marie Calmy-Rey is the President of the Confederation in Switzerland, head of government. She is also Switzerland's foreign minister as head of the Federal Department of Foreign Affairs. She has been a member of the Swiss Federal Council since 2003, and was President of the... |
Switzerland |
| 19.03.2011 | Prime Minister | Rosario Fernandez | Peru |
| 01.04.2011 | Capitano Reggente | Maria Luisa Berti Maria Luisa Berti Maria Luisa Berti is a Sammarinese politician who was a Captain Regent for the April to October 2011 political term. The post was shared with Filippo Tamagnini.-External links:... |
San Marino |
| 04.04.2011 | |||
| Cissé Mariam Kaïdama Sidibé Cissé Mariam Kaïdama Sidibé Cissé Mariam Kaïdama Sidibé is a Malian politician and the current incumbent prime minister of the country, the first woman to be appointed to the position in Mali's history. She was announced to the position by decree on 3 April 2011, replacing Modibo Sidibé.-Early career:Mariam Kaïdama Sidibé... |
Mali | ||
| 07.04.2011 | President | Atifete Jahjaga Atifete Jahjaga Atifete Jahjaga is the fourth and current President of Kosovo. She is the first female, the first non-partisan candidate, and the youngest to be elected to the office. She is also the first female head of state in modern Balkans... |
Kosovo |
| 08.08.2011 | Prime Minister | Yingluck Shinawatra Yingluck Shinawatra Yingluck Shinawatra , or nickname Pu , is a Thai businesswoman and politician, member of the Pheu Thai Party, and the 28th Prime Minister of Thailand following the 2011 general election... |
Thailand |
| 03.10.2011 | Prime Minister | Helle Thorning-Schmidt Helle Thorning-Schmidt Helle Thorning-Schmidt is a Danish politician and the current Prime Minister of Denmark. She has been leader of the Danish Social Democrats since April 2005 and prime minister since October 2011.... |
Denmark |
Women as cabinet ministers
Women holding prominent cabinet posts have grown in numbers worldwide during the 20th and 21st centuries, and in recent years have increasingly held the top profile portfolios for their governments in non-traditional areas for women in government, such as national security and defense, finance, revenue and foreign relations.Ministers of foreign affairs
The following women have held posts in recent years as ministers of foreign relations or the equivalent for their respective national governments:| Date term began | Title of office | Name | Country |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2007-08 and 2011- | |||
| Erato Kozakou-Marcoullis Erato Kozakou-Marcoullis Erato Kozakou-Marcoullis is a Cypriot politician who is currently the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Cyprus. She had also served in this post from July 2007 until March 2008. She is married with George Marcoullis and has a son.-References:... |
Cyprus | ||
| 2008- | |||
| Rosemary Kobusingye Museminari | Rwanda | ||
| 2008- | |||
| Carolyn Rodrigues Carolyn Rodrigues Carolyn Allison Rodrigues-Birkett is a Guyanese politician who has served as Minister of Foreign Affairs since April 2008.Rodrigues, an Amerindian, was born in Moruca, Barima-Waini Region... |
Guyana | ||
| 2008 | |||
| Eka Tkeshelashvili | Georgia | ||
| 2008 | |||
| (Acting) Helen Clark Helen Clark Helen Elizabeth Clark, ONZ is a New Zealand political figure who was the 37th Prime Minister of New Zealand for three consecutive terms from 1999 to 2008... |
New Zealand | ||
| 2008- | |||
| Maxine McClean | Barbados | ||
| 2008- | |||
| Antonella Mularoni Antonella Mularoni Antonella Mularoni is Secretary of State for Foreign and Political Affairs, Telecommunications and Transport of the Republic of San Marino.She was formerly the San Marino judge for the European Court of Human Rights.... |
San Marino | ||
| 2009- | |||
| Dipu Moni Dipu Moni Dipu Moni is a Bangladeshi politician and diplomat and the current Minister of Foreign Affairs since 2009.-Early Political Career:Until now the principal focus of her work has been women's rights and entitlements, health legislation, health policy and management, health financing, strategic... |
Bangladesh | ||
| 2009 | |||
| Maria Adiato Diallo Nandigna | Guinea-Bissau | ||
| 2009- | |||
| Hilary Rodham Clinton | United States of America | ||
| 2009 | |||
| Patricia Isabel Rodas Baca | Honduras | ||
| 2009- | |||
| Aurelia Frick Aurelia Frick Aurelia Frick is a Liechtenstein government minister with responsibility for justice, foreign affairs, and cultural affairs.-Education:Frick studied law at the University of Fribourg, Switzerland, graduating in 1999... |
Liechtenstein | ||
| 2009- | |||
| Maite Nkoana-Mashabane Maite Nkoana-Mashabane Maite Emily Nkoana-Mashabane is a South African politician. She has been South Africa's Minister of International Relations and Cooperation since May 2009, taking over from Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma. She is also a member of the National Executive Committee of the African National Congress... |
South Africa | ||
| 2009-11 | |||
| Sujata Koirala Sujata Koirala Sujata Koirala is a Nepalese politician and the only daughter of former Prime Minister Girija Prasad Koirala. She was made a minister without portfolio in her father's cabinet in 2008. She was made Foreign Minister under Prime Minister Madhav Kumar Nepal. Sujata was promoted to Deputy Prime... |
Nepal | ||
| 2009-11 | |||
| Etta Banda Etta Banda Etta Elizabeth Banda is the current Minister of Foreign Affairs in Malawi, having held the position since 2009. She was formerly the MP for Nkhata Bay South and a professor.-References:... |
Malawi | ||
| 2009- | |||
| Naha Mint Mouknass | Mauritania | ||
| 2009- | |||
| Marie-Michele Rey | Haiti | ||
| 2009- | |||
| Louise Mushikiwabo Louise Mushikiwabo Louise Mushikiwabo is the current Minister of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation of the Republic of Rwanda.Her brother, Lando Ndasingwa, was the only tutsi minister in the last Habyarimana government, but was killed in the beginning the 1994 genocide.- References :... |
Rwanda | ||
| 2010- | |||
| Baroness Ashton of Upholland | the European Union | ||
| 2010 | |||
| (Acting) Rasa Juknevičienė Rasa Juknevičienė Rasa Juknevičienė is a Lithuanian politician. In 1990 she was among those who signed the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania. Currently Rasa Juknevičienė serving as Minister of Defense.-References:... |
Lithuania | ||
| 2010- | |||
| Lene Espersen Lene Espersen Lene Espersen is a Danish politician and member of parliament who has been Danish Minister of Foreign Affairs since 23 February 2010 and was leader of the Conservative People's Party and Deputy Prime Minister from 9 September 2008 to 13 January 2011... |
Denmark | ||
| 2010-11 | |||
| Aminatou Djibrilla Maiga Touré | Niger | ||
| 2010- | |||
| María Ángela Holguín-Cuéllar | Colombia | ||
| 2010-11 | |||
| (Acting) Vlora Çitaku Vlora Çitaku Vlora Çitaku is a Kosovar politician, who is currently the Minister for European Integration of the Republic of Kosovo and a member of the Kosovo Assembly .-Career:... |
Kosovo | ||
| 2010- | |||
| Trinidad Jiménez García-Herrera | Spain | ||
| 2010-11 | |||
| Michèle Alliot-Marie Michèle Alliot-Marie Michèle Jeanne Honorine Alliot-Marie, born 10 September 1946 and nicknamed MAM, is a French politician of the Union for a Popular Movement . A member of all but one right-wing governments of the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s, she was the first woman in France to hold the portfolios of Defense , the... |
France | ||
| 2011- | |||
| Hina Rabbani Khar Hina Rabbani Khar Hina Rabbani Khar is a Pakistani politician and the current Foreign Minister of Pakistan. Appointed in July of 2011, she is the first female and the youngest person to ever head Pakistani's Ministry of Foreign Affairs.... |
Pakistan | ||
| 2011 | |||
| (Acting) Erlinda F. Basilio | Philippines | ||
| 2011- | |||
| Yvette Sylla | Madagascar | ||
Ministers of defense and national security
The following women have held posts in recent years as ministers of defense, national security or an equivalent for their respective national governments:| Date term began | Title of office | Name | Country |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2006-07 | Minister of Defence | Viviane Blanlot Soza | Chile |
| 2006-11 | Minister of Defense | Cristina Fontes Lima | Cape Verde |
| 2007-09 | Minister of Defence | Vlasta Parkanová Vlasta Parkanová Vlasta Parkanová, née Trnovcová is a Czech politician who served from January 2007 to May 2009 as the nation's Minister of Defence. In 1997–1998 she served as the Minister of Justice.... |
Czech Republic |
| 2007 | Minister of Defence | Guadalupe Larriva González | Ecuador |
| 2007 | Minister of Defence | Lorena Escudero Durán | Ecuador |
| 2007 | (Acting) Minister of Defence | Marina Pendeš | Bosnia and Herzegovina |
| 2007- | Secretary General of Defence with Rank of Minister | Ruth Tapia Roa | Nicaragua |
| 2007 | Minister of Defence | Yuriko Koike Yuriko Koike is a Japanese politician, who was the Minister of Defense in the Cabinet of Prime Minister Shinzo Abe, but resigned August 27, 2007 after only 54 days in office... |
Japan |
| 2007-09 | Minister of Defence | Cécile Manorohanta Cécile Manorohanta Cécile Manorohanta is a Malagasy politician, currently serving in the government of Madagascar as Deputy Prime Minister for the Interior. Previously she was Minister of Defense from 2007 to 2009.... |
Madagascar |
| 2008- | Minister of Defence | Carme Chacón i Piqueras | Spain |
| 2008-10 | Minister of Defence | Elsa Maria Neto D’Alva Texeira de Barros Pinto | São Tomé e Príncipe |
| 2008- | Minister of Veterans' Affairs | Judith Collins | New Zealand |
| 2008- | Associate Minister of Defence | Heather Roy Heather Roy Heather Roy , is a New Zealand politician and has served as an ACT Member of Parliament since 2002. From 2006 until 17 August 2010, Roy was ACT's Deputy Leader... |
New Zealand |
| 2008- | Minister of Disarmament and Arms Control | Georgina te Heuheu Georgina Te Heuheu Georgina Manunui te Heuheu QSO is a Māori descent of Tūhoe, Tūwharetoa, Te Arawa and Ngāti Awa. MP in the New Zealand National Party and a Cabinet Minister in the New Zealand Government.-Early life:... |
New Zealand |
| 2008- | Minister of Defence | Ljubica Jelušič Ljubica Jelušič Ljubica Jelušič is a Slovenian politician, currently the Minister of Defence in the government of Borut Pahor.-External links:* http://www.mo.gov.si/en/about_the_ministry/leadership/#header... |
Slovenia |
| 2008- | Minister of Defence | Rasa Juknevičienė Rasa Juknevičienė Rasa Juknevičienė is a Lithuanian politician. In 1990 she was among those who signed the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania. Currently Rasa Juknevičienė serving as Minister of Defense.-References:... |
Lithuania |
| 2009- | Minister of Defence and Veterans' Affairs | Lindiwe Nonceba Sisulu | South Africa |
| 2009-11 | Minister of Defence | Bidhya Devi Bhandari | Nepal |
| 2009-11 | Minister of Defence | Angélique Ngoma | Gabon |
| 2009- | Minister of Defence | Grete Faremo Grete Faremo Grete Faremo , is a Norwegian politician who serves as the Norwegian Minister of Justice and the Police in Norway.... |
Norway |
| 2010- | Minister of Defence | Gitte Lillelund Bech Gitte Lillelund Bech Gitte Lillelund Bech is a Danish politician who has been Defence Minister representing the Liberal party, Venstre. She entered office in January 2010, when she replaced Søren Gade after a cabinet reshuffle.-References:... |
Denmark |
| 2010 | (Acting) Minister of Defence and Security | Lesego Motsumi Lesego Motsumi Lesego Motsumi is a politician from Botswana. Motsumi was the Minister of Health until November 2004, when she became the Minister of Works and Transport. In the 2008 cabinet reshuffle, held upon the appointment of new president Ian Khama, Motsumi reverted back to her old post as Minister of... |
Botswana |
| 2011 | Minister of Defence | María Cecilia Chacón Chacón | Bolivia |
Ministers of finance or revenue
The following women have held posts in recent years as ministers of finance, revenue, or an equivalent for their respective national governments:| Date term began | Title of office | Name | Country |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2008-11 | Minister of Economy and Competitiveness | Fátima Maria Carvalho Fialho | Capo Verde |
| 2008-11 | Minister of Finance | Diana Dragutinović Diana Dragutinovic Dr. Diana Dragutinović is a Serbian politician, and former Minister of Finance in the Government of Serbia.... |
Serbia |
| 2008- | Minister for the National Investment Plan | Verica Kalanović Verica Kalanovic Verica Kalanović is a Serbian politician and the current Deputy Prime Minister of the Government of Serbia.- Biography :... |
Serbia |
| 2008 | Minister of Finance | Wilma Josefina Salgado Tamayo | Ecuador |
| 2008- | Minister of Finance | María Elsa Viteri Acaiturri | Ecuador |
| 2009- | Minister of Economy | Helena Nosolini Embalo | Guinea-Bissau |
| 2009- | Chairperson of the Council of Economic Advisors | Christina Romer Christina Romer Christina D. Romer is the Class of 1957 Garff B. Wilson Professor of Economics at the University of California, Berkeley and a former Chair of the Council of Economic Advisers in the Obama administration... |
United States |
| 2009- | Minister of Finance | Clotilde Niragira | Burundi |
| 2009-11 | Minister of Finance | Syda Namirembe Bumba | Uganda |
| 2009-11 | Government Councillor of Finance and Economy | Sophie Thevenoux | Monaco |
| 2009- | Minister of Finance and Economy | Elena Salgado Méndez | Spain |
| 2009- | Minister of Finance | Ingrida Simonytė | Lithuania |
| 2009- | Minister of Economic Affairs | Michelle Winklaar | Aruba (Dutch External Territory) |
| 2009-11 | Minister of Finance | Raya Haffar al-Hassan Raya Haffar al-Hassan Raya Haffar al-Hassan is the Lebanese finance minister, the first woman to be appointed to such a senior post in Lebanon. Along with minister without portfolio Mona Ofeich, Hassan was one of two women appointed in the November 2009 cabinet of Saad Hariri.Hassan is a member of the March 14 Alliance... |
Lebanon |
| 2010-11 | Minister of Economy | Lamia Assi Lamia Assi Lamia Assi is the current Minister of Tourism of Syria, serving since 2011. She previously served as the Minister of Economy and Trade and as the Ambassador to Malaysia.-Early life and education:Assi was born on December 27, 1955... |
Syria |
| 2010- | Minister of Economic Policy | Katiuska Kruskaya King Mantilla | Ecuador |
| 2010- | Chairperson of Economic Planning Council | Christina Y. Liu | Taiwan |
| 2010- | Economic Secretary to the Treasury | Justine Greening Justine Greening Justine Greening is a Conservative Party politician in the United Kingdom. She has been the Member of Parliament for Putney since 2005. She was appointed Economic Secretary to the Treasury in May 2010, and became Secretary of State for Transport on 14 October 2011... |
United Kingdom |
| 2010- | Minister of Economic and Stability Development | Vera Kobalia Vera Kobalia Vera Kobalia is a Georgian politician who has served in the Cabinet of Georgia as the country's Minister of Economy and Sustainable Development since July 2, 2010.-Early life:... |
Georgia |
| 2010- | Minister of Economy | Darja Radić | Slovenia |
| 2010-11 | Minister of Finance | Wonnie Boedhoe | Suriname |
| 2010- | Minister of Finance | Penny Wong Penny Wong Penelope "Penny" Ying-yen Wong , is an Australian Labor Party senator for South Australia and the Federal Minister for Finance and Deregulation. Wong was the first Australian Minister for Climate Change and Water. Her appointment was amended on 26 February 2010, by the Prime Minister, to the... |
Australia |
| 2010- | Federal Councillor of Finance | Eveline Widmer-Sclumpf | Switzerland |
| 2010- | Minister for Economy | Kim Wilson Kim Wilson Kim Wilson is an American blues singer and harmonica player. He is best known as the lead vocalist and frontman for The Fabulous Thunderbirds on two hit songs of the 1980s; "Tuff Enuff", and "Wrap It Up."-Career:... |
Bermuda (British Dependent Territory) |
| 2010 | (Acting) Minister of Finance | Elfreda Tamba | Liberia |
| 2010- | Finance Minister | Martina Dalić Martina Dalić Martina Dalić is a Croatian economist and finance official currently serving as Croatia's Minister of Finance having been appointed to the office on 29 December 2010... |
Croatia |
| 2011 | (Acting) Minister of Finance | Dinara Shaydieva | Kyrgyzstan |
| 2011- | Federal Minister of Finance | Maria Fekter Maria Fekter Maria Theresia Fekter is an Austrian politician and since 2011 the current Austrian Minister of Finance. Before that, she used to be Minister of the Interior... |
Austria |
| 2011- | Minister of National Revenue | Gail Shea Gail Shea Gail Shea, PC, MP is a Canadian politician, currently the Member of Parliament for Egmont. She was previously a member of the Legislative Assembly of Prince Edward Island from 2000 to 2007, representing the electoral district of Tignish-DeBlois as a member of the Progressive Conservative Party.As... |
Canada |
| 2011- | Minister of Finance | Jutta Urpilainen Jutta Urpilainen Jutta Pauliina Urpilainen is the current Minister of Finance of Finland and the Chairperson of the Social Democratic Party of Finland . She was elected in June 2008 as the first female chairperson of the SDP.... |
Finland |
| 2011- | Minister of Budget | Valérie Pécresse Valérie Pécresse Valérie Pécresse is a French politician. She has been deputy of the Yvelines since May 16, 2002, Minister for Higher Education and Research from May 18, 2007 to June 2011 and is currently in charge of the budget as the Minister of the Budget since then... |
France |
| 2011- | Minister of Economy and Finances | Adidjatou Mathys | Benin |
| 2011- | Minister of Budget, Finances, Taxes, Numeric Economy | Sonia Backès | Nouvelles Caledonie (French External Territory) |
| 2011- | Minister of Finance and Economic Planning | Maria Kiwanuka Maria Kiwanuka Maria Kiwanuka is a Ugandan economist, businesswoman and politician. She is the current Minister of Finance in the Ugandan Cabinet. She was appointed to that position on 27 May 2011. On account of being a cabinet minister she is an ex-officio member of the Ugandan Parliament... |
Uganda |
| 2011- | Minister of the Treasury | Anne Craine | Isle of Man |
| 2011- | Minister of Economy | Margrethe Vestager Margrethe Vestager Margrethe Vestager is a Danish politician representing Det Radikale Venstre. She has been a Member of Parliament since 20 November 2001. On 15 June 2007 she was appointed parliamentary group leader of her party, replacing Marianne Jelved.... |
Denmark |
Executive branch
Women have been notably underrepresented in the executive branch of government. The gender gap has been closing, however, albeit slowly The first women other than monarchs to hold head of state positions were in socialist countries. The first was Khertek Anchimaa-TokaKhertek Anchimaa-Toka
Khertek Amyrbitovna Anchimaa-Toka was a Tuvinian/Soviet politician who in 1940-1944 was a chairman of Little Khural of Tuvan People's Republic, and the first elected or appointed female head of state in the modern world.-Biography:Khertek Anchimaa was born in what is now Bay-Tayginsky...
of the Tuvan People's Republic from 1940–1944, followed by Sükhbaataryn Yanjmaa of the Mongolian People's Republic 1953-1954 and Soong Ching-ling
Soong Ching-ling
Soong Ching-ling , also known as Madame Sun Yat-sen, was one of the three Soong sisters—who, along with their husbands, were amongst China's most significant political figures of the early 20th century. She was the Vice Chairman of the People's Republic of China...
of the People's Republic of China
People's Republic of China
China , officially the People's Republic of China , is the most populous country in the world, with over 1.3 billion citizens. Located in East Asia, the country covers approximately 9.6 million square kilometres...
from 1968–1972 and 1981.
Following the socialist countries, the Nordic countries have been forerunners in including women in the executive branch. The second cabinet Brundtland
Second cabinet Brundtland
Brundtland's Second Cabinet was a minority, Labour Government of Norway. It succeeded the Conservative Willoch's Second Cabinet, and sat between 9 May 1986 and 16 October 1989. It was replaced by the Conservative/Centre/Christian Democrat cabinet Syse after the 1989 election...
(1986–1989) was historical in that 8 out of 18 cabinet members were women, and in 2007 the second cabinet Stoltenberg
Second cabinet Stoltenberg
Stoltenberg's Second Cabinet is the current government of Norway. Appointed on 17 October 2005, it is a coalition between the Labour Party, the Socialist Left Party and the Centre Party, known as the Red–Green Coalition. The cabinet has ten members from the Labour Party, five from the Socialist...
(2005–present) was more than 50% women. Some current female politicians that have reached top positions in the Nordic countries are the President of Finland
Finland
Finland , officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden in the west, Norway in the north and Russia in the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland.Around 5.4 million people reside...
, Tarja Halonen
Tarja Halonen
Tarja Kaarina Halonen is the incumbent President of Finland. The first female to hold the office, Halonen had previously been a member of the parliament from 1979 to 2000 when she resigned after her election to the presidency...
and Deputy Prime Minister of Sweden
Deputy Prime Minister of Sweden
The Swedish constitution allows the Prime Minister to appoint one of the Ministers in the cabinet as Deputy Prime Minister , in case the Prime Minister for some reason is prevented from performing his or her duties...
, Maud Olofsson
Maud Olofsson
Maud Elisabeth Olofsson is a Swedish politician, the former leader of the Centre Party of Sweden between 2001-2011, and the former Minister for Enterprise and Energy between 2006 and 2011...
.
In 2003, Finland had a historical moment when all top leaders of the country were women and also represented different political parties: Social democrat
Social Democratic Party of Finland
The Social Democratic Party of Finland is one of the three major political parties in Finland, along with the Centre Party and the National Coalition Party. Jutta Urpilainen is the current SDP leader. The party has been in the Finnish government cabinet for long periods and has set many...
Tarja Halonen
Tarja Halonen
Tarja Kaarina Halonen is the incumbent President of Finland. The first female to hold the office, Halonen had previously been a member of the parliament from 1979 to 2000 when she resigned after her election to the presidency...
was President, Riitta Uosukainen
Riitta Uosukainen
Riitta Maria Uosukainen is a Finnish politician and former Member of Parliament. She is one of the eight people to gain the highest honorary title, valtioneuvos, given by the President....
from National Coalition Party was Speaker of the Parliament and after the parliamentary elections of 2003
Finnish parliamentary election, 2003
The Finnish parliamentary election of 2003 was the 34th election to the Eduskunta , held on 16 March 2003 after the termination of the previous parliamentary term...
Anneli Jäätteenmäki
Anneli Jäätteenmäki
Anneli Tuulikki Jäätteenmäki, Master of Laws was the first female Prime Minister of Finland, in office from 17 April 2003 to 24 June 2003....
from Center party
Centre Party (Finland)
The Centre Party is a centrist and Nordic agrarian political party in Finland. It is one of the four largest political parties in the country, along with the Social Democratic Party , the National Coalition Party and the True Finns , and currently has 35 seats in the Finnish Parliament...
was on her way to become the first female Prime Minister of Finland
Prime Minister of Finland
The Prime Minister is the Head of Government of Finland. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President, who is the Head of State. The current Prime Minister is Jyrki Katainen of the National Coalition Party.-Overview:...
. By June 22, 2010 Mari Kiviniemi
Mari Kiviniemi
Mari Johanna Kiviniemi is a Finnish politician and former Prime Minister of Finland. On 22 June 2010, as the new leader of the Centre Party, she was elected Prime Minister of Finland by the Finnish Parliament following the resignation of Prime Minister Matti Vanhanen...
of the Centre Party was appointed the second female Prime Minister of Finland
Prime Minister of Finland
The Prime Minister is the Head of Government of Finland. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President, who is the Head of State. The current Prime Minister is Jyrki Katainen of the National Coalition Party.-Overview:...
.
The world's first elected female president was Vigdís Finnbogadóttir
Vigdís Finnbogadóttir
Vigdís Finnbogadóttir is an Icelandic politician who served as the fourth President of Iceland from 1980 to 1996. In addition to being both Iceland's and Europe's first female president, she was the world's first democratically elected female head of state...
of Iceland
Iceland
Iceland , described as the Republic of Iceland, is a Nordic and European island country in the North Atlantic Ocean, on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Iceland also refers to the main island of the country, which contains almost all the population and almost all the land area. The country has a population...
, whose term lasted from 1980 to 1996.
In 2005, Ellen Johnson Sirleaf of Liberia
Liberia
Liberia , officially the Republic of Liberia, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Sierra Leone on the west, Guinea on the north and Côte d'Ivoire on the east. Liberia's coastline is composed of mostly mangrove forests while the more sparsely populated inland consists of forests that open...
became Africa's first elected female head of state.
Legislative branch
It was not until World War I and the first socialist revolutions that the first few women became members of governments. Alexandra KollontaiAlexandra Kollontai
Alexandra Mikhailovna Kollontai was a Russian Communist revolutionary, first as a member of the Mensheviks, then from 1914 on as a Bolshevik. In 1919 she became the first female government minister in Europe...
became the first female to hold a minister position, as the People's Commissar for Social Welfare in Soviet Russia
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic , commonly referred to as Soviet Russia, Bolshevik Russia, or simply Russia, was the largest, most populous and economically developed republic in the former Soviet Union....
in 1917. Nina Bang
Nina Bang
Nina Henriette Wendeline Bang née Ellinger was a Danish social democratic politician and historian...
, Danish Minister of Education from 1924–26, was the world's second full female cabinet minister.
The first female head of government was Evgenia Bosh
Evgenia Bosh
Evgenia Bosh , sometimes known as Evgenia Bogtdanovna Bosch or Evheniya Bohdanivna Bosch, was a Bolshevik militant during the Russian Revolution, a military leader during the Revolution, and the first modern woman leader of a national government, as the Minister of the Interior, Leader of the...
, the Bolshevik
Bolshevik
The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists , derived from bol'shinstvo, "majority") were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party which split apart from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903....
military leader who held the People's Secretary of Internal Affairs position in the Ukraine People's Republic of the Soviets of Workers and Peasants from 1917–1918, which was responsible for executive functions. Nevertheless, development was slow and it was not until the end of the 20th century that female ministers stopped being unusual.
The first government organization formed with the goal of women's equality was the Zhenotdel
Zhenotdel
The Zhenotdel was the Women's Section of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union .In November 1918 Alexandra Kollontai, Inessa Armand, Nadezhda Krupskaya, Konkordiia Samoilova, Klavdia Nikolayeva, and Zlata Lilina organized the First National Congress of Women Workers and...
, in Soviet Russia.
According to a 2006 report by the Inter-Parliamentary Union, 16% of all parliament members in the world are female. In 1995, the United Nations
United Nations
The United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace...
set a goal of 30% female representation. The current annual growth rate of women in national parliaments is about 0.5% worldwide. At this rate, gender parity in national legislatures will not be achieved until 2068.
The top ten countries in terms of number of female parliamentary members are Rwanda
Rwanda
Rwanda or , officially the Republic of Rwanda , is a country in central and eastern Africa with a population of approximately 11.4 million . Rwanda is located a few degrees south of the Equator, and is bordered by Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo...
with 56.3%, Sweden
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
(47.0%), Cuba
Cuba
The Republic of Cuba is an island nation in the Caribbean. The nation of Cuba consists of the main island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos. Havana is the largest city in Cuba and the country's capital. Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city...
(43.2%), Finland
Finland
Finland , officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden in the west, Norway in the north and Russia in the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland.Around 5.4 million people reside...
(41.5%), the Netherlands (41.3%), Argentina
Argentina
Argentina , officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires...
(40.0%), Denmark
Denmark
Denmark is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. The countries of Denmark and Greenland, as well as the Faroe Islands, constitute the Kingdom of Denmark . It is the southernmost of the Nordic countries, southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and bordered to the south by Germany. Denmark...
(38.0%), Angola
Angola
Angola, officially the Republic of Angola , is a country in south-central Africa bordered by Namibia on the south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo on the north, and Zambia on the east; its west coast is on the Atlantic Ocean with Luanda as its capital city...
(37.3%), Costa Rica
Costa Rica
Costa Rica , officially the Republic of Costa Rica is a multilingual, multiethnic and multicultural country in Central America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, Panama to the southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west and the Caribbean Sea to the east....
(36.8%), Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
(36.3%). Cuba has the highest percentage for countries without a quota. In South Asia, Nepal is highest in the rank of women participation in politics with (33%). In the United States in 2008, the New Hampshire State Senate became the first state legislature upper house to possess an elected female majority.
The United Kingdom and United States are roughly in line with the world average. The House of Lords
House of Lords
The House of Lords is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster....
has 139 women (19.7%), while there are 125 women
Women in the British House of Commons
The representation of Women in the British House of Commons has been an issue in British politics at numerous points in the 21st century. Originally debate centered on whether women should be allowed to vote and stand for election as Members of Parliament...
(19.4%) in the British House of Commons
British House of Commons
The House of Commons is the lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which also comprises the Sovereign and the House of Lords . Both Commons and Lords meet in the Palace of Westminster. The Commons is a democratically elected body, consisting of 650 members , who are known as Members...
.
Local representation
There has been an increasing focus on women’s representation at a local level. Most of this research is focused on developing countries. Governmental decentralization often results in local government structures that are more open to the participation of women, both as elected local councilors and as the clients of local government services.A 2003 survey conducted by United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG), a global network supporting inclusive local governments, found that the average proportion of women in local council was 15%. In leadership positions, the proportion of women was lower: for instance, 5% of mayors of Latin American municipalities are women.
According to a comparative study of women in local governments in East Asia and the Pacific, women have been more successful in reaching decision-making position in local governments than at the national level. Local governments tend to be more accessible and have more available positions. Also, women’s role in local governments may be more accepted because they are seen as an extension of their involvement in the community.
Indian panchayats
The local panchayat system in India provides an example of women’s representation at the local governmental level. The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments in 1992 mandated panchayat elections throughout the country. The reforms reserved 33% of the seats for women and for castes and tribes proportional to their population. Over 700,000 women were elected after the reforms were implemented in April 1993.Further reading
- Eileen McDonagh (2009), The Motherless State: Women's Political Leadership and American Democracy, University of Chicago Press ISBN 9780226514550
- Helene Silverberg (1998), "A Government of Men: Gender, the City, and the New Science of Politics," in Silverberg (ed.), Gender and American Social Science: the formative years (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press).
See also
- List of the first female holders of political offices
- List of elected or appointed female heads of state
- List of elected or appointed female deputy heads of government
- Council of Women World LeadersCouncil of Women World LeadersThe Council of Women World Leaders is a network of current and former women prime ministers and presidents established in 1996 by Vigdís Finnbogadóttir, President of Iceland and first woman in the world to be democratically elected president, and Laura Liswood, Secretary General...
External links
- Centre for Advancement of Women in politics (Queens University, Belfast)
- Current female leaders
- Political Women (Vol. 1 of 2) by Sutherland Menzies (fl.FloruitFloruit , abbreviated fl. , is a Latin verb meaning "flourished", denoting the period of time during which something was active...
1840-1883)